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Dieting and Dietary Habits

Failure of nutrition is responsible for most of our diseases and rotten health. Diets are a wide field of incomprehensible efforts to correct mislead nutrition.

The classic function of diets are to reduce body weight.
A great number of women try diets to reduce their weight. They are looking for better health or want to improve aesthetics. Body culture is getting important in actual society.

Weight reduction should only be considered if there are clinical reasons. Body weight is genetically controlled. If one feels good with a certain weight everything no diet should be considered. Much outdoor exercise keeps you healthy. There are some ways to determine normal weight[1]:


The Broca normal-weight

The Broca normal weight is given in kg and is defined as body size in cm minus 100 for man.
For women the body size minus 100 minus 5 to 10% is used. Over- and underweight in relation to broca normal weight is given in percent. The Broca-Indexis the quotient of the actual weight and the Broca normal-weight.


Table of the American life insurance companies

With this table the actual weight is put in relation to the normal weight for the corresponding age and body size.


The Bodymass Index BMI

The Bodymass index is the quotient of the body weight and the square of the body size (kg/m²). This index gives best informations about the mass of the body fat. It is less used as Broca because it is less informative for the patient.
Image BMI
Picture source: Wikipedia. [2]

BMI

The dashed lines represent subdivisions within a major class. For instance the "Underweight" classification is further divided into "severe", "moderate", and "mild" subclasses.

Age Bodymass index (kg/m²)
19 - 24 years 19 - 24
25 - 34 years 20 - 25
35 - 44 years 21 - 26
45 - 54 years 22 - 27
55 - 64 years 23 - 28
over 65 years 24 - 29


(National Research Council 1989)
  Grade of overweight BMI(kg/m²) Broca-overweight(%)
       
Normal weight 0 20 up to 24,9 -
Moderate overweight I 25 up to 29,9 0 up to 20 (-40)
Strong overweight II 30 - 40 20 - 70 (-80)
Extreme overweight III > 40 > 70 (>80)


Classification of overweight in adults according to BMI

[3]
Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation 2003
Classification BMI (kg/m²) Risk of comorbidities
Underweight <18.5 Low (but risk of other clinical problems increased)
Normal range 18.5-24.9 Average
Overweight ≥25.0  
Pre obese 25.0-29.9 Increased
Obese class I 30.0-34.9 Moderate
Obese class II 35.0-39.9 Severe
Obese class III ≥40.0 Very severe


These BMI values are age-independent and the same for both sexes. However, BMI may not correspond to the same degree of fatness in different populations due, in part, to differences in body proportions.The interpretation of BMI gradings in relation to risk may differ for different populations. Both BMI and a measure of fat distribution (waist circumference or waist : hip ratio (WHR)) are important in calculating the risk of obesity comorbidities.

The consultation considered that, to achieve optimum health, the median BMI for the adult population should be in the range 21-23 kg/m², while the goal for individuals should be to maintain BMI in the range 18.5-24.9 kg/m².

Calculate your BMI

Please use the calculator of CDC at:
http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/index.html

Healthy weight- It's not a diet, it's a lifestyle

[4]
When it comes to weight loss, there's no lack of fad diets promising fast results. But such diets limit your nutritional intake, can be unhealthy, and tend to fail in the long run.

The key to achieving and maintaining a healthy weight isn't about short-term dietary changes. It's about a lifestyle that includes healthy eating, regular physical activity, and balancing the number of calories you consume with the number of calories your body uses.

Waist circumference

Waist circumference is a convenient and simple measure which is unrelated to height, correlates closely with BMI and the ratio of waist-tohip circumference, and is an approximate index of intra-abdominal fat mass and total body fat.

Furthermore, changes in waist circumference reflect changes in risk factors for cardiovascular disease and other forms of chronic diseases, even though the risks seem to vary in different populations. There is an increased risk of metabolic complications for men with a waist circumference ≥102 cm, and women with a waist circumference ≥588 cm. [5]

Dubious Pharmaceutical industry and flat magazines recommend all kind of diets. There are made increasing turnovers in this field, not always without damage of health of the consumer.
Advertising uses terms like"slim", "calorie reduced", "light", "Du darfst"(You may), "fat reduced" and others to promote selling of their products.
With great publicity campaigns in magazines, TV and radio appetite of the group of overeaters is stimulated rather then reduced. The result of these products are therefore negative.
Examples of diets lacking any scientific background[6]:


Lowcarb diets

Lowcarb diets are low in carbohydrates and rich in protein and fat. The most prominent lowcarb diets are the Atkins diet, the Southbeach diet, the Ketogen diet the Anabole diet and the LOGI diet (Low Glycemic Index) from Dr. Nicolai Worm.

Vegetarian food with animal ingredients

Many vegetarian labelled foods of industrial origin do contain animal ingredients such as bovine suet, lard, restaurants prepare their meals labelled as vegetarian with meat broth and marine oil. [7].

Psychology of diet plans

Diet plans and diet systems to be successful must observe some basic psychological rules:
  1. At the beginning of a diet plan the dangers of overweight are enumerated. This is the most dangerous part of the plan as those who do not succeed with the diet will later on create a deeper psychological conflict. Their real problems which took them to overeat will then be boosted. Such an introduction should always be banned from a diet plan as it frightens the reader, it increases the inferiority complexes. Instead of telling the reader how bad its life is, a diet plan should make its introduction enumerating the benefits.
  2. The promise that overweight can be reduced to normal values using a specific diet is not honest. As weight reduction is coupled to intake and output of calories over the whole life, the necessary modification of life style cannot be achieved in one or two weeks of sometimes strange procedures which lack any explanation of how it should work. The explanations should be short and come to the point precisely. If the principles are unknown this part should be omitted completely.
  3. Reference of people who were successful with the diet. Usually well known people of the public life and TV stars are cited. This increases the desire to participate of the life of these persons. Awaking from the fairy tales the monotony of the daily round will be more sad then before.
  4. Certainty that everyone can succeed with the diet is a claim which is untrue.
    Many people are unsuccessful and have great psychological distress failing in what is told to be easy for everyone.
  5. Explanation of the foundations of the diet should only be given based on well known statements. If there is no explanation available no comment suggesting miracles should be given.


The cause of failure of diet plans and how to do it better

Mislead diets are not caused by alteration of the basic metabolism. The real cause is the lack of learn effect to adapt the life Style to a healthy way of life and to correct the bad habits.
Wolfgang Stabel [8], during a course to get rid of smoking habit said:
"Mankind can live 170 seconds without air, 12 days without water and 46 days without food. Without tobacco it can live a whole life."
To this statement one can add: one can live without chocolate, without candies and hamburgers.
The essential message of diet plans should be to change the life habits: How to to it better[9]:
  1. Drink 2 litre of water per day, eat fibre rich food.
  2. Do not bother about calories, but spare fat and alcohol.
  3. Eat on regular hours, do not eat in between.
  4. Eat enough vitamins, minerals and proteins
  5. Noting is forbidden, you can eat everything, but always without excesses
  6. Enjoy a small dish. Eat always with attention.
  7. Act against stress with physical activity and relaxation exercise and not with eating junk food
  8. Stay realistic. Set small scores. Distrust crash-diets and miracle-diets. Do it the safe way changing food habits.
  9. Activate the fat break down with physical activity. The more muscles you activate more calories are burned.
  10. Money back guarantee in case of failure of the diet is a bad trick. Less than 10% complain in case of failure. The majority does not dare to do it. Who wants to admit to have failed when it is being told that all other do succeed ?

The National Weight Control Registry (NWCR)

[10]
The National Weight Control Registry (NWCR), is a research study from the University of Colorado that seeks to gather information from people who have successfully lost weight and kept it off for long periods of time.

The findings of this study are:
A little over one-half of the sample lost weight through formal programs (such as Weight Watchers, or professional assistance, such as Overeaters Anonymous, a psychologist or a registered dietitian; the remainder lost weight on their own.

Both groups reported having used both diet and exercise to lose weight and nearly 77% of the sample reported that a triggering event had preceded their successful weight loss. Mean (+/-SD) current consumption reported by registry members was 5778 +/- 2200 kJ/d, with 24 +/- 9% of energy from fat, Members also appear to be highly active: they reported expending approximately 11830 kJ/wk through physical activity.

Surprisingly, 42% of the sample reported that maintaining their weight loss was less difficult than losing weight. Nearly all registry members indicated that weight loss led to improvements in their level of energy, physical mobility, general mood, self-confidence, and physical health. [11]


The separation diet of Dr. Howard Hay

Dr. Howard Hay was during his life attacked by a renal insufficiency. To help himself Dr. Hay studied the composition of the body noting that it was built of 80% of alkaline material and 20% of acid material. Starting from this hypothesis Dr. Hay divided food in alkaline generator and in acid generators. He introduced the following modification in his nutrition:
Acid generators : Great part of the proteins and part of carbohydrates.
Alkaline generators: Vegetables, fruits and salads. According to Dr. Hay the the alkaline generators may neutralize acid elements, helping their excretion.
Dr. Hay augmented the amount of vegetables being half cooked and the other half raw.
Dr. Hay says that the failure of balance between the acid generator food and the alkaline generator food is responsible for diseases like obesity, insomnia and depression.
Dr. Hay separated the protein rich food from the carbohydrate rich food, putting them in different meals. This gave the name to his diet.
Dr. Hay established the rules to his diet:

Good diets


Low Fat - 30 Diet

It is a weight reduction program for all who want to reduce their weight together with a group. Participation is for the time being limited to Germany.
The most important facts about low fat nutrition is given in small groups. Meals should not contain more than 30% of calories coming from fat. You should eat only when feeling hungry. At the first sign of satiation one should finish the meal. The diet is based on points. Minimum amounts of foods are given. Once a week brochures on special topics are given.
A long-lasting modification of the nutritional habits are essential in order to avoid overweigh.


Natural Weight Program

This program was developed by Dr. Doris Wolf She herself had been overweighted and tried to amend it using here knowledge as a psychologist and psychotherapist developing the Natural Weight Program.

Putting on weight because of emotional problems and stress are the main reasons for many people to skip all good intentions of an healthy nutrition. Frustration, anger and other negative emotions are compensated by eating. Alternatives to get emotionally balanced other than overeating are strategies of modern psychology. How to to handle one's emotions and how to accept one's own body not as an enemy, but as a fried, are important subjects of the Program. The negative attitude towards their body must be changed.

According to Dr.Doris Wolf all kind of diets are unsuitable for the majority of persons. There are biological and psychological reasons which are responsible for the fact that only 2 to 5 per cent of those who follow a diet register lasting weight reduction.

Dr. Wolf uses four principles as basis for her Program:
The four principles
1 - Eat only when you are physically hungry and not when mental hungry.
2 - Eat what you like for the moment.
3 - Eat consciously, being aware of what you eat and how your body reacts.
4 - Stop eating when you feel satisfied

The risks of bad diets


The potential risks of low-carbohydrate diets

The American Heart Association, the American Dietetic Association and the American Kidney Fund warn about the potential risks from the long-term use of low-carbohydrate, high-protein diets.
Low-carbohydrate diets, like Atkins diet avoid carbohydrates (starches or sugar) reducing or even eliminating the intake of fruit, fruit juices, starchy vegetables, beans, bread, rice, cereals pasta and other grain products. This leads to a nutrition consisting mainly of fat and proteins. Permitted are meat, cheese, non-starchy vegetables. Everything else is limited to a minimum. Later on the carbohydrate restriction is reduced but high fat and proteins persists. Despite initial weight loss higher than rob obtained with other diets, low-carb diets however have a net weight loss after one year which is not significantly different from other diets in comparison.

Many nutritionists attack the Atkins weight loss regime for its high fat content, increasing the risk of clogged arteries heart attack, diabetes, stroke and several types of cancer in the long term.

Deleterious effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors were demonstrated by Larosa [12] in a study of 24 obese individuals who followed the Atkins diet for 3 month. Caloric Intake declined, but LDL cholesterol levels rose despite the weight loss. Most of the weight loss occurred in the first few weeks, which suggests the combined effects of fluid loss and potential anorectic (reduction of desire to eat) effects of induced ketosis.

The American Heart Association does not recommend high-protein diets because they restrict foods that provide essential nutrients. An undersupply of vitamins and minerals, as well as potential cardiac, renal, bone and liver abnormalities may result.

A new study carried out at the University of Oxford demonstrates a direct affect on the heart caused by this diet. The results were presented at the American Heart Association conference in November 15, 2005, in Dalas.
According to this study, the energy stores in the heart were reduced by an average of 16 per cent as a result of the Atkins diet recommendations. One of the authors , Dr. Damien Tyler says that similar patterns in a more severe form in patients with heart failure, and type 2 diabetics also suffer from low energy stores.

Evaluation of High-Protein Diets

[13] Evaluation of high-protein diets must be done ensuring that the American Heart Association Dietary Guidelines regarding eating patterns [14] and the primary prevention for coronary Omega 6 from the National Cholesterol Education Programme [15] are observed:

1 - Total Protein intake should not be excessive (average 50 to 100 g/d) and should reasonably proportional (around 15% of kilocalories per day) to carbohydrate (around 55% of kilocalories per day) and fat (around 30% of kilocalories per day) intake.

2 - Carbohydrates should not be omitted or severely restricted. A minimum of 100 g carbohydrate per day is recommended to ensure overall nutritional adequacy through the provision of a variety of healthful foods.

3 - Selected protein foods should not contribute excess total fat, saturated fat, or cholesterol.

4 - The diet should be safely implemented over the long term, i.e. it should provide adequate nutrients and support dietary compliance with a healthful eating plan to prevent increases in disease risk.

The AHA summarises: "Successful weight loss occurs most frequently when a nutritionally adequate diet that allows for caloric deficits (around 500 kcal/d for each 1 lb lost per week) is tailored according to individual food preferences.

A minimum of 1200 kcal/d for women and 1500 kcal/d for men should be provided.

Total energy deficit has the greatest overall impact on weight reduction, especially when coupled with increased physical activity and behaviour modification to maintain negative energy balance. Over the long term, diet composition should be consistent with a balanced eating plan that supports weight maintenance and lowers chronic disease risk.

The Dietary Intervention Randomized Controlled Trial (DIRECT) says that weight-loss diets can be tailored to personal preferences

[16]
Dr Iris Shai and colleagues 2008 studied the effects of three diets: low-fat/restricted-calorie diet; Mediterranean/restricted-calorie diet; or low-carbohydrate diet, with no restriction on calories.

- The low-fat diet used the AHA guidelines with intake of 1500 kcal for women and 1800 kcal for men daily, with 30% of energy from fat, 10% from saturated fat, and 300 mg of cholesterol daily.
- The Mediterranean diet had a high vegetable and low meat content with poultry and fish and similar amount of energy daily.
- The low-carbohydrate diet provided 20 g of carbohydrate daily for 2 months with an increase to 120 g per day.

Weight loss occurred in all three groups over the 24 months but was greater in the Mediterranean and low-carbohydrate groups. In men weight loss was greatest in the low-carbohydrate group, whereas women appeared to lose more weight on the Mediterranean diet.

Dr. Shai says that Mediterranean diet makes it easier to reduce calories because moderate fat consumption is permitted.
Low-carbohydrate diet such as Atkins diet defines carbohydrate foods so the dieter can avoid them without counting calories. Craving in this diet is reduced, compared to other diets, it offers higher satiety, and it provides an encouraging immediate response of the body weight.

The authors concluded that Mediterranean and low-carbohydrate diets are effective alternatives to low-fat diets. They call for individualized tailoring of dietary interventions.

Weight Reduction

Daily intake of energy

The only way to treat overweight is to bring the daily intake of energy down to the level of the daily output of energy. None of the above mentioned wonder diets have brought a durable weight reduction[1]
"Eat half of what you eat now" can reduce intake of calories to an acceptable amount. Formula diets [17] Formula diets such as Cambridge-diet, Day-fit , Slimfastor Herbalife according to DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung ) are expensive, reduce life quality and destroy environment.
Formula diets in Germany have to be in accordance to the Diet-directrix which prescribes the concentration of nutritional components.
The amount of dietary fibres of formula-diet is often to low, so fibres and pellets of peelings and hull of cereals are added.


Formula diets for weight reduction according to Codex Alimentarius, second edition,1994 part 3

Formula Foods for weight reduction diets are foods which are ready to serve or must be prepared according to instructions and are intended to replace one or more meals of the day.

Formula foods to replace all daily meals

They should have at least 800 kcal(3.350 kJ) and not more than 1.200 kcal (5020 kJ).for a day, divided in three or four meals with equal amount of calories.

Formula foods to replace one or more meals

To replace one or more meals they should have at least 200 kcal(835 kJ) and not more than 400 kcal (1.670 kJ) for each meal.
If the formula foods are claimed to replace main meals they should not have more than 1.200 kcal (5.020 kJ). The formula diet system is not a safe system to reduce body weight. As soon as one comes back to former nutritional habits the overweight returns. This is called Jo-Jo-effect.
Publicity campaigns using words like flavour and delicious meals were prohibited in relation to formula diets because of their monotonous flavour which becomes disgusting being used for a long period.
To reduce body weight the DGE says to return to normal balanced nutritional habits.
There should be no struggle with the body.
A permanent bad conscience leads to stress. A good feeling is to achieve having no feeling of guilt.
As an orientation about the amount of energy which is necessary in normal life a table of the daily required energy is given below. This table does not replace weighing. It is not possible to calculate the real daily intake of energy and there is not possible to determinate the ideal intake of energy because each individual has its own basal metabolism and has different jobs and do different sports requiring different amount of energy.
The determination of nutritive value of carbohydrates and proteins in relation to their content in calories are calculated using calorie tables when recipes are known.
If recipes are not available the content of fat by means of solvent extraction are determined. Proteins are measured by means of the Kjeldahl method using the factor of 6,25 for conversion of nitrogen to protein. The content of fibres and water are determined at 105°. Carbohydrates are calculated as being the rest of it. The energy of 100 g of food is calculated using the following values:

Ingredient kJ kcal
1 g protein 17 kJ 4 kcal
1 g fat 37kJ 9 kcal
1 g carbohydrate 17 kJ 4 kcal




Calorimetry
Calorimetry burning the food in a closed system and measuring the rise of temperature is a method which is seldom used.

Age kCal/day(man/women) cJoules/day (man/women)
0 to 2 month 550 2.200
2 to 5 month 750 3.100
6 to 11 month 850 3.600
1 to 3 years 1.100 4.500
4 to 6 years 1.500 6.500
7 to 9 years 1.900 8.000
10 to 12 years 2.300 / 2.200 9.500 / 9.000
13 to 14 years 2.700 / 2.500 11.500 / 10.500
15 to 18 years 3.000 / 2.400 12.500 / 10.000
19 to 35 years 2.600 / 2.000 11.000 / 9.000
36 to 50 years 2.400 / 2.000 10.000 / 8.500
51 to 65 years 2.200 / 1.800 9.000 / 7.500
> 65 years 1.900 / 1.700 8.000 / 7.000
Pregnancy + 300 + 1.200
Breath-feeding + 700 + 3.000




This table is made for people with normal activities. For hard workers please add:

The Weight Loss Maintenance Behavioral Intervention

[18]

Jack F. Hollis and colleagues from the Weight Loss Maintenance Trial Research Group in a randomized trial reported successfull short-term weight loss in a diverse population of high-risk patients. The Weight Loss Maintenance behavioral intervention was based on combined emphasis on dietary intake and physical activity to achieve short- and long-term weight-loss goals,

The intensive weight-loss program was based on reduction of 500 calories per day, exercise for a total amount of 180 minutes each week, consumption of 2400 mg or less of sodium per day, and adherence to the DASH diet. Participants were encouraged to lose up to 2 pounds per week to achieve a total weight loss of at least 4 kg for 20 weeks.

According to the authors behavioral strategies to modify health behaviors are important components of weight-loss interventions because the ability to monitor and regulate behavior, and help to overcome barriers of initial weight loss and long-term maintenance.

A minimum of exercise of 15 minutes/day is of health benefit, says Taiwanese study

[19] Taiwan is known to have a population with very low leisure-time physical activity, according to studies of Ku 2006, 2009 and Wai 2008. Wen et al 2011 determined a minimum of exercise which is still beneficient for this population. The authors calculated life expectancy for every group. The minimal amount of physical activity to reduce mortality risk iwas found to be 15 minutes a day of moderate-intensity exercise.

Exercised for an average of 92 min per week or 15 min a day had a 14% reduced risk of all-cause mortality and had a 3 year longer life expectancy. Every additional 15 min of daily exercise beyond the minimum amount of 15 min a day further reduced all-cause mortality by 4% and all-cancer mortality by 1%. Individuals who were inactive had a 17% increased risk of mortality compared with individuals in the low-volume group. The authors concluded that 15 min a day or 90 minutes a week of moderate-intensity exercise might be of benefit.

Low leisure-time physical activity in Taiwanese adults

[20] According to Ku et al. 2006 Asians tend to be less physically active compared to Western countries. The authors found that only 14% of Taiwanese adults met national recommendations for physical activity levels. In contrast to Western countries, adults 45 years and older were more likely to be active vs young people. Risk factors for physical inactivity were limited formal education and a paying job. The authors recommend to increase active leisure for improving health, of younger adults.

Expression of leisure-time physical activity LTPAin kcal

[21] Way et al.2008 write that using caloric equivalent to expressing the energy output could help nutritionists to improve informations related to energy equilibrium. The authors recommend a goal of >or=750 kcal/week for Asians, attainable by exercising 4 hours/week. The researchers found that actually 4/5 of adults in Taiwan failed to reach this goal, Only 1/7 (13.9%) reached a more desirable goal of >or=1,000 kcal/week, compared with 1/3 in the U.S. The 25-44 age group being the least active in Taiwan. Women, lower education or income, younger age, smokers and chewers of betel quid; exercised significantly less than their counterparts.

Low leisure-time physical activity linked to depressive symptoms in Taiwanese older people

[22] Ku et al.2009, used data from the Taiwan's Health and Living Status of the Elderly Survey in 1996, 1999 and 2003. Participants engaging in at least three activity sessions per week were classified as being physically active. Low leisure-time physical activity was found to increase the risk of developing depressive symptoms. The authors concluded that leisure-time physical activity reduces the risk of significant depressive symptoms in older women.

Recommendations of the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans

[23] Most health benefits occur with at least 150 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes) a week of moderate intensity physical activity, such as brisk walking. Additional benefits occur with more physical activity.
The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans recommend:
For adults
- All adults should avoid inactivity. Some physical activity is better than none, and adults who participate in any amount of physical activity gain some health benefits.
- For substantial health benefits, adults should do at least 150 minutes (2 hours and 30 minutes) a week of moderate-intensity, or 75 minutes (1 hour and 15 minutes) a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous intensity aerobic activity. Aerobic activity should be performed in episodes of at least 10 minutes, and preferably, it should be spread throughout the week.
- For additional and more extensive health benefits, adults should increase their aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes (5 hours) a week of moderate intensity, or 150 minutes a week of vigorous intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity activity. Additional health benefits are gained by engaging in physical activity beyond this amount.
Children and Adolescents (aged 6–17)
- Children and adolescents should do 1 hour (60 minutes) or more of physical activity every day.
- Most of the 1 hour or more a day should be either moderate- or vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity.
- As part of their daily physical activity, children and adolescents should do vigorous-intensity activity on at least 3 days per week.

Publications biased by own understanding of their authors or editors

[24]
James R Marshall and Zhao Chen argue that epidemiologic patterns of disease-exposure associations must be interpreted in light of the profound imprecision of exposure assessment that characterizes nutritional epidemiology. The authors highlight the imposition of publication bias: the failure of researchers to submit and of editors to publish findings that do not fit well with the their own understanding. The information extracted from assays of associations between exposure and disease is always estimated with serious imprecision or bias.

Physiology of hunger

Hunger has different phases:

Phase 1

The seat of the centre of hunger is located in the hipothalamus. Tiny sensors situated on the walls of the stomach and intestines communicate with the hipothalamus. They send informations about quantity of food filling the stomach and the intestines.
Other biochemical sensors control the concentration of the different substances such as glucose, the amino acids and the concentration of fatty acids in blood. These informations are also send to the hipothalamus.
When the level of glucose drops the hipothalamus sends signals to the brain where old habits related to the search for food are located.

Phase 2

If the body does not react on these signals the hipothalamus intensifies the signals of hunger.

Phase 3

If these strong signals of hunger does not work the hipothalamus changes his tactic and starts to burn fatty acids, situated in the centres of reserve.

Phase 4

If this phase is also overcome the hipothalamus erases the signals of hunger.
Hunger artists and Fakirs can overcome long periods of hunger. These people report that hunger vanishes after 2 to 3 days of starving being replaced by a feeling of wellnes which may escalate to euphoria.

Appetite to specific foods

The body can show unspecific hunger but also increase the desire to specific foods, for example:
Noradrenalin, insulin and the neuropeptide Y are responsible for the desire to eat bread or noodles.
Galanin is responsible for the desire to fatty food. As serotonin rises the desire for carbohydrates decreases increases the appetite to food rich in proteins such as fried meat. After a meal rich in proteins the blood level of serotonin decreases. The next meal will then be rich in carbohydrates.

Well-fed

The feeling of well-fed comes slowly. The first signals come from the walls of the stomach and intestines indicating the stretch of these organs. These informations are centralized in the brain.
The feeling of well-fed depends not only from the amount of food which had been eaten but also from the quality of food. One litre of water does not kill hunger.
The seat of the feeling of well-fed is located in the hipothalamus controlling also the level of nutrient substances in blood.
Noradrenalin and cholecystokinin are responsible for the informations of sufficient quantity of energy being stored. Other substances such as serotonin modulate the informations with emotions.
Serotonin is being produced in the brain and transported along the spinal cord to the neurons where it produces the feeling of well-fed.

Reductil, a suppressant of appetite

Reductil is being sold in the USA under the name of MERIDIA . It acts in the brain reducing appetite. The active substance of Reductil is sibutramin Reductil is being produced by BASF-Knoll (Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik) . The drug has been liberated by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) in USA only after a long time. A similar drug, the appetite suppressant REDUX with its active part the dexfenfluramin presented dangerous secondary reactions. In Germany and in Austria Redux had been sold under the name of Isomeride. Redux has caused damage of cardiac valves as well as pulmonary hypertension. After many tests it has been proved that Reductil does not have these side reactions.

Reductil or Plenty makes serotonin stay for a longer time between the neurons. By this mean the appetite is suppressed. The neurotransmitter serotonin transmits the feeling of well-fed in the sinapsis from one neuron to another. after some time serotonin is slowly catabolized and partially reabsorbed by the neurons.
Reductil with sibutramine closes the way which exists in the cell membrane of the neurons in the region of the sinapsis avoiding serotonin being absorbed. Serotonin can therefore transmit for a longer time the feeling of well-fed.
At the end of the decade of the 80 the WHO (World Health Organization) had obesity declared as being a worldwide epidemic.
The FDA ( Food and Drug Administration) being conscious of the gravity of the problem had speeded the registration and the approval of weight reducing substances. This caused a flood of new drugs, fibres to fill the stomach, laxatives, teas, special diets and appetite suppressants.
All these products don't work or have serious side reactions.

Chinese slimming capsules contain sibutramine leading to serious side effects

[25][26]
The Chinese slimming pills "Meizitanc" declared as a food supplement are on sale over the Internet. They are labelled to contains herbal substances, however, high levels of undeclared sibutramine (10 mg/capsule) were found in these pills. Sibutramine resembles amphetamine which inhibits the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline in the brain. Sibutramine is

According to Dieter Müller et al. 2009, persons taking these pills are poisoned. They complain about nausea, tachycardia, headache, agitation, dyspnea, and insomnia, acute confusion and psychosis, mainly in combination with other drugs.

On December 22, 2008, the Food and Drug Administration issued an alert to consumers naming 27 different products marketed as "dietary supplements" for weight loss, that illegally contain undisclosed amounts of sibutramine [27] [28].

The authors take for granted that the consumption of food supplements containing sibutramine is much greater than has been recorded. The authors urge that manufacturers should be obliged to declare ingredients.

The Sibutramine Cardiovascular OUTcomes (SCOUT) trial

[29]
The SCOUT trial has been designed to determine the impact of weight loss with sibutramine on cardiovascular endpoints in a large group of overweight and obese subjects at high risk for cardiovascular disease. Sibutramine is a neurotransmitter inhibitor and belongs to the family of amphetamines. It reduces appetite and cravings hence leading to weight loss. However, it must be supported by a healthy diet and regular exercise.

Results from the SCOUT study indicating cardiovascular events occurred in 11.4% of patients using sibutramine compared to 10% of patients using a placebo. This difference was higher than expected, suggesting that sibutramine was associated with an increased cardiovascular risk in the study population. The study reviewed by FDA indicate that the increased risk for cardiovascular events with sibutramine occurred only in patients with a history of cardiovascular disease.

The use of Sibutramine is authorised in the EU since 1999. New concerns arise after the release of the Sibutramine Cardiovascular OUTcomes (SCOUT) trial. Weight reducing medicines containing Sibutramine are Reductil, Reduxade and Zelium and other tradenames in Europe, and Meridia in the United States. Sibutramine could increase blood pressure and heart rate.

FDA reviewing safety of sibutramine

[30]
The FDA is reviewing preliminary data from a recent study suggesting that patients using sibutramine have a higher number of cardiovascular events (heart attack, stroke, resuscitated cardiac arrest, or death) than patients using a placebo.

The additional data from the SCOUT study reviewed by FDA indicate that the increased risk for cardiovascular events with sibutramine occurred only in patients with a history of cardiovascular disease. [31]

The European Medicines Agency (EMEA) urges ban on a weight loss pill containing sibutramine, which are sold under the names Reductil, Reduxade and Zelium in Europe and Meridia in the United States over fears that it could increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Acording to EMEA, data of the SCOUT study indicate an increased risk of serious cardiovascular events, such as stroke or heart attack, with medicines containing sibutramine [32].

Abbott will suspend the marketing of Abbott medicines under the brand names Reductil, Merindia, Sibutral, Ectiva and Raductil, containing sibutramine in all EU member Countries, Iceland and Norway. Sibutramine remains available outside the EU. Abbott followed the recommendations of the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicine Agency (EMA), after evaluation of data of the SCOUT study [33].

Xenical, The fight against fat

Digestion of fat takes place with help of bilear acids and pancreatic lipases, which hydrolyzes the fat molecules enables thus the absorbtion by the gastric mucose.
Xenical by means of its active substance orlistat blocs the lipases of pancreas avoiding 30% of fat to be hydrolysed in smaller parts. Fat which is not hydrolysed cannot be absobed by the gastric mucous. It remains in the faeces causing diarrhea when to much fat is consumed. This causes an educational effect which lead to a reduced intake of foods rich in fat.
Xenical acts slowly. It is necessary to take the drug for a long period. It helps only in combination with a diet, together with a change of its nutritional habits towards a healthy composition: much fruits and vegetables, little meat, less fat accompanied by physical activities such as sport or garden work. One cannot escape the following overweight equation:

(Absorbed energy) - (Basal metabolism energy + physical activities energy) = Body fat

To reduce body weight it is necessary to eat less, to reduce fat intake, and practice more physical activities.
All efforts to reduce overweight with drugs, even surgery of the adipose tissue are not lasting when they are not accompanied by a change of the nutritional habits.


Basal Metabolic Rate

The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the number of calories burned in a 24 hours period while lying down, but not sleeping in a comfortably warm environment.


Active Metabolic Rate

The Active Metabolic Rate (AMR) is estimated by adding the caloric cost of all activities throughout the day to the BMR.

A person should not eat less than their BMR but not more then their ANR.


Serotonin

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter which together with more than 100 other substances are active in the brain where nerve cells (neurons) link.
Serotonin is 5-Hydroxytryptamine. Besides its biochemical activities in the neurophysiology it is also active as biogenic amine produced by bacteria. Serotonin is part of the blood clotting, being released by the trombocytes[34]. Serotonin causes a strong contraction of blood vessels resulting in an increase of blood pressure [35]

Image Serotonin
Tryptophane is basis for serotonin. It is broken down by monoamineoxidase The Institute of Technology of Massachusetts discovered that a high level of serotonin provides good mood and avoids uncontrolled hunger and continuous desire to sweet food. Serotonin is therefore also known as " Good mood hormone". Serotonin should be present in a steady concentration of about 10 mg.
Some foods are rich in serotonin such as pineapple, banana, tomatoes. Other foods are rich in trytophan which can be used by the body to synthetize serotonin. These foods should therefore build the basis for a long lasting diet to reduce overweight.

Foods rich in serotonin and/or Tryptophan

[36] Fruits: Pineapple,avocado, banana, date, fig, papaya.
Vegetable: Lamb's lettuce, carrot, round lettuce, leek, parsley, beetroot, spinach, tomato, onion.
Meat: Chicken, veal, beef, pork, turkey breast.
Seafood: Perch, catfish, trout, shrimp, herring, codfish, carp, salmon, spiny lobster, mackerel, mussel, sardine, haddock, plaice, pollack, sole, tuna.
Cereals: Rolled oats, rice, rye bread, white bread, rusk.
Milk and eggs: Buttermilk, eggs, fresh cheese, yoghurt, low fat curd cheese, milk.
Nuts: Cashewkernel, peanuts, hazelnut, almond, Brazil nut, walnut.


Overweight

The Body-Mass-Index (BMI) is used to indicate overweight.

BMI = Body weight divided by the square of body length in meters

International classification of BMI ( Please see also BMI at the beginning of the chapter "Physiology":

  Grade of overweight BMI(kg/m²) Broca-overweight(%)
Normal weight 0 20 up to 24,9 -
Moderate overweight I 25 up to 29,9 0 up to 20 (-40)
Strong overweight II 30 - 40 20 - 70 (-80)
Extreme overweight III > 40 > 70 (>80)


Slimming ingredients

The slimming ingredients are based on the following mechanisms of action:

Use of Xenical in case of low body weight (BMI below 30)

Xenical and Reductil were not developed to adjust cosmetic effects.They are drugs .0 to be used when there are clinical indications.
Physicians and authorities of health departments refuse prescription of both drugs because new drugs may have serious side effects which are seen only after many years. It is necessary to compare the unknown risk of a new drug with the risk of obesity.
The greatest effect of weight reduction with Xenical are due to reduction of fat in the food using the diet which should accompany the use of the drug. Chocolate, fat sausages, cheese with high fat content and similar food should be banned from the table when weight should be reduced. Reducing fat causes the weight return to normal in a healthy way without dependence on drugs.

Food with reduced fat

Curd cheese can be used in place of butter or margarine as bread spread.
Avoid all white sauces like mayonnaise, use vinegar or sauces made with diluted yoghurt. Be careful not to use Sauces with yoghurt from the supermarket. they contain small amount of yoghurt together with a lot of oil in order to increase self life.
Avoid peanuts, sunflower nuts and other nuts. They contain much oil.
Avoid fried potatoes and all fast food.

Food industry is not committed to healthy food

[37] Reduction of fat, sugar and salt was driven by marketing slogans using claims which were easy to fulfil. The new products were primary developed in the fat reduced mayonnaise dressings, fat spreads and beverages. Ketchup light was "created" replacing fructose syrup with artificial sweetener and a bit of guargum achieving cost reduction. Very little was achieved in meat products.

Low fat yoghurt

Consumer say that Aldi stores never offered yoghurt with 0,1% fat. This product had once been sold by LIDL where it was accepted by the consumer but suddenly it was taken from market and the 3% fat yoghurt is being aggressively offered. It is hard to find some yoghurt with 0,1% fat at NETTO Stores. It is immediately outsold and high fat yoghurt has to be used as an alternative to 30% fat dressings. Only niche products are now introduced on market, most of them are bound to disappear soon after being linked to exotic herbs or ingredients with vague health claims linked to low fat, such as drinks based on milk.

The concentration of retailer corporations reduces the diversity of food types which are sold. The customer gets used to a standardisation of articles which are similar in taste and packaging formate at all grocery stores, varying only by the layout of the label.

Reformulating a product to reduce fat, sugar or salt should not try to copy all sensory characteristics. The taste should differ from the unhealthy product so that the consumer get aware of the healthy difference. However, it is important to reduce the price accordingly to the reduction of the ingredients where water takes their place seen wit the example of kethup or fat spreads. As far as meat products concerns, lower fat means less lard and more lean meat which implies of higher price.

Food industry should face the challenge to disrupt standardisation of food products and be truly committed to the reduction of the three killer: fat, sugar salt not only in the niche sector but in the primary foods.

Medical prescription of Xenical in case of BMI 30 to 40

In Germany Xenical is being sold only with medical prescription. The BMI must be at least 30 (obesity degree I and higher).

Use of Xenical in case of BMI over 40

In case of overweight with a BMI over 40 the use of Xenical should not be used. The loss of weight would be to slow. In these cases the use of the Optifast program is indicated or even a surgical reduction of the stomach.

Xenical, the drug of the rich society

The use of Xenical is very expensive. The medication of one month with Xenical costs 200 Dm in Germany [38] and 300 Reais in Brasil[39]. The use of Xenical for two years costs 2.400 Dm.

Dexfenfluramin

Dexfenfluramin acts on the brain reducing appetite. It was recalled from market because of serious side reactions such as coronary problems. Dexfenfluramin had been sold under the name of Redux and is an example of serious side effects which are noted only after years of use. One of such horrible markers of the history of pharmacy Contergan which produced anatomical modifications on unborn. Other drugs which are being studied as possible weight reduction are leptin , neuropeptide Y inhibitor, and CCK hormone . CCK hormone is produced by the small intestine and acts as message substance telling the brain that there is enough food which has been taken in. [39].
Instead of praising a new era of wellness-drugs (Viagra from Pfizer, Prozac from Eli Lilly an antidepressant, Propecia from Merck Sharp and Dohme for better hairs, Xenical from BASF to fight overweight and Reductil from Roche an appetite suppressant) one should come back to the real values of life.

Industry asking to tighten the rules on weight-reduction drugs

[40]
It is hard to believe but it is true, GlaxoSmithKline, owner of Alli weight-reduction OTC drug, instead of pledging for soft rules, issued a petition to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to ban dietary supplements from making weight loss claims.

Dietary supplements and weight-loss aids aren't subject to the same rigorous standards as are prescription drugs or medications sold over-the-counter. They can be marketed with limited proof of effectiveness or safety. Vendors can make health claims about products based on their own review and interpretation of studies without the authorization of the FDA.

GSK says that the tria supporting botanical and other ingredients in benefit of weight loss are not rigorous enough, or numerous enough. Classifying weight-loss products as prescription drugs or medication could eliminate nasty competitors which could not present clinical studies of their claims.

The Mayo Clinic cites over the counter weight-loss drugs, all of them presenting serious inconveniences: Bitter Orange, Chitosan, Chromium, Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), Country mallow (heartleaf), Ephedra, Green tea extract, Guar gum, Hoodia. [41]
Consumer interest in weight management is stronger than ever as obesity-related problems have increased.

Drug for weight loss, limited efficacy and safety concerns.

[42]
Alli acts as a fat blocker by preventing up to 25 percent of fat eaten from being digested. Alli has half the amount found in prescription Orlistat (Xenical). A low-fat (no more than 15 grams of fat per meal) and a reduced-calorie program must be followed.

In April 2006, the consumer group Public Citizen petitioned the FDA to block Alli because of concerns of two studies suggesting that Xenical can cause these precancerous growths. [43] [44]

Mayo Clinic says Alli provides only modest results

[41]
According to Donald Hensrud, M.D., a preventive medicine and nutrition specialist at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn Alli could conceivably result in an average of 3 pounds lost in a year in addition to the approximately 8 pounds you could expect to lose from diet and exercise alone.

Spices and obesity

[45]
Magriet Westerterp-Plantenga and colleagues found that consumption of spiced foods or herbal drinks leads to greater thermogenesis (heat generation) and in some cases to greater satiety. In this regard, capsaicin, black pepper, ginger, mixed spices, green tea, black tea and caffeine are relevant examples.

The authors conclude that thermogenic ingredients may be considered as functional agents that could help in preventing a positive energy balance and obesity.

Active Capsaicin of red chilli pepper boosts heat generation by the body. More energy is therefore burned, reducing fat deposition.
Gingerols and shogaols of ginger have thermogenic properties.
Mixtures of of black pepper, red chilli, turmeric, cumin, ginger and other spices could therefore become interesting to help against obesity.

Piperine of black pepper, is said to bind to so-called Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid (TRPV1)receptors in the brain and other parts of the nervous system.

Capsaicin from red pepper may avoid obesity

[46] Chin-Lin Hsu and Gow-Chin Yen of Taiwan have found that capsaicin,from red pepper cause apopteosis (death) of immature fat cells, the pre-adipocyte cells called 3T3-L1from mice. These cells differentiate into mature adipocytes and increase fat mass, causing obesity. Capsaicin also decreased the amount of intracellular triglycerides and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. According to the authors, capsaicin inhibited the protein expression of PPAR which regulate several genes involved in the formation of fat cells, as well as making body fat. These results demonstrate that capsaicin efficiently suppresses adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes and adipocytes. Red chilli pepper was also linked to inhibit the growth of pancreatic cancer cells. [47]

However, high intake of hot chillies has been linked with increased risk of stomach cancers in the populations of India and Mexico. [48]

Body Clock linked by enzyme pathway to Metabolism

[49] [50]
The circadian rhythms is the body clock which regulates energy levels in cells. It is linked with the body's day-night patterns and metabolism, and ensure that cells function properly and remain healthy. These findings open the pathway to new treatments for diseases caused by cell energy deficiencies.

Circadian rhythms of 24 hours govern physiological functions all over the organism. According to Sassone-Corsi, Professor at the University of California, disruption of these rhythms can profoundly influence human health and has been linked to obesity, diabetes, insomnia, depression, coronary heart diseases and cancer.

The researchers found that CLOCK[50], an essential molecular gear of the circadian machinery interacts with a protein, SIRT1, which senses cell energy levels and modulates aging and metabolism. The link between the circadian clock and metabolism is maintained by metabolic proteins which send signals called the NAD+ salvage pathway where NAMPT helps to control CLOCK levels, If balance of this pathway is disrupted cells cannot function properly.

Sassone-Corsi and colleagues found that the core circadian regulator, CLOCK, is a histone acetyltransferase whose activity is counterbalanced by the NAD(+)-dependent histone deacetylase SIRT1. Proper sleep and diet may help maintain or rebuild the balance between CLOCK and SIRT1 and the NAD+ salvage pathway. Lack of rest or disruption of normal sleep patterns can also increase hunger, leading to obesity-related illnesses and accelerated ageing.

Fat tissue negative feedback to the brain may be important in obesity understanding

[51]
Readily available energy storage in form of glycogen may be worn off by exercise or by hunger periods. Burning fat is then activated. The sympathetic nervous system, used to regulate functions of the body, independent of concious thoughts, communicates with the adipose cells to initiate, continue or stop the fat burning.

It already had been known that peripheral pseudounipolar dorsal root ganglion sensory cells innervate fat tissue and play a role in the short-term burning of fat. The central nervous system projections of the white adipose tissue were now studied by the authors.

Following their data, the authors suggest the existence of a sensory adipose tissue pathway to the brain important in the negative feedback control of lipid mobilization. This pathway stops lipolysis when no more energy is needed. This process seems to be involved with the long-term burning of fat and obesity.

Transient receptor potential or TRP

[52]The phrase Transient receptor potential or TRP is appended to at least three classes of ion channels which mediate the response of a cell to external stimuli (electrical charge, substances, and forces) by increasing or decreasing its selective permeability to particular ions. The effect of this change is to modify the potential difference between inside and outside of the cell. Hence "receptor," for sensitivity to the environment, and "potential" for this difference. TRPV1 to TRPV4 can basically be seen as thermometers on a molecular level, and are activated by various means. When TRPV1 gets activated, it turns up the heat by boosting heat production by the body. TRPV1 is activated by noxious heat, acidic pH and capsaicin.

These new findings should not lead to a higher consumption of chilli con carne. Obesity is the result of many biochemical psychological and environmental occurrences. Seasoning could be a small contribution to tackle the obesity problem.

Diet in the preconceptional phase influences foetal sex

[53]
Dr. Mathews, Johnson and Neil in 2008 presented a report which says that foetal sex is associated with maternal diet at conception.

High caloric intake and cereals at breakfast in the preconceptional phase favour the birth of male child with odds of 56 %. High energy intake and breakfast cereal consumption around conception is associated with glucose. In vitro, glucose enhances the growth and development of male conceptuses while inhibiting that of females. Skipping breakfast extends the normal period of nocturnal fasting, depresses circulating glucose levels and may be interpreted by the body as indicative of poor environmental conditions.

For many nutrients, circulating levels are highly dependent on recent intakes and not on stored fat reserves. Glucose levels are influenced bythe glycaemic index of foods. This supports the assumption that sex ratio is linked more directly to diet than to maternal condition.

The intake of sodium, and potassium was also a factor which affected gender. As possible explanation the researchers suggest that salty diet alter the acidity of the vagina to favour male sperm.

Women in the study who had girls had low caloric food reduced cereals at breakfast in the time before conception.

The authors also point out that these findings may help to explain the falling proportion of boys born in developed countries, where low-calorie diets are preferred by young women.


Breakfast

Breakfast is the most important meal of the day. Researches on the effect on cognitive function, health and obesity are still unsufficient, say researchers.

Reduction of breakfast calories reduces overall daily energy intake

[54] According to Schusdziarra and colleagues 2011 increasing breakfast calories is associated with greater overall energy intake. The increasing ratio of breakfast to total daily energy intake was associated with a significant reduction of overall intake when post-breakfast energy was significantly reduced. The authors stress that breakfast calories have the strongest influence on daily energy intake. They recommend overweight and obese subjects should consider the reduction of breakfast calories to reduce their body-weight.

Daily breakfast consumers are less overweight, have improved cognitive functions and health

[55] A review by Rampersaud and colleagues 2005 stresses children which eat breakfast regularly have also a healthier dietary habits compared with breakfast-skipping children. Breakfast eaters consumed more daily calories but less overweight cases were reported. Breakfast consumption may improve memory, test grades, school attendance, health and well-being, according to some studies.. The authors strongly recommend the daily consumption of breakfast consisting of a variety of foods, especially high-fibre and nutrient-rich whole grains, fruits, and dairy products.

Breakfast improves school achievement of children with compromised nutritional status

[56] Breakfast is linked to healthier macro- and micronutrient intakes, BMI and lifestyle and improved cognitive function. Daily breakfast is therefore better than skipping it., but this is only in evidence in children with compromised nutritional status. Hoyland, Dye and Lawton 2009 say there are little studies on this matter and no studies were made with adolescents and make recommendations for future research design and policy priorities.


The Conference on Preventing Childhood Obesity, December 8, 2003

Rising childhood obesity were highlighted at the Conference trying to find out how additional increases in obesity could be prevented.
Matthew Gillman, MD, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, pointed out some of the highlights of the conference:


factors in foetal development and the first six month of life

According to Dr. Gillman differences in birth weight as well as subsequent BMI may be determined by some the prenatal and postnatal environments In addition, genes that cause birth-weight differences may also determine BMI differences.

Alterations in the foetal environment

Transfer of fatty acids, leptin, and other hormones, foetal hyperinsulinemia, and the functioning of the foetal/placental unit are here included.

Other speakers pointed out:
Breastfeeding is protective against obesity and should be encouraged to be practiced during the first year of life.

Foods and beverages that are energy dense and nutrient poor like soda and french fries should not be fed to infants as young as 7 months of age as they alter taste preferences.

Authoritative versus permissive parenting styles and their role in childhood obesity should be subject of further research.


Relationship of birth weight and childhood

According to Dr S. Kramer from the McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, like the United States, Canada is experiencing an epidemic of obesity, not only among 6- to 17-year-old individuals but even in the toddler and preschool periods.

During the course of life, exposures that determine obesity may be attributable to environmental, social, behavioural, or biological factors.

He examined relationship of birth weight to weight in childhood data from the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in Tennessee, and found that the 3.0- to 3.5-kg birth-weight grouping most closely approximated that value at 5 years of age. The lightest infants (1.0-1.5 kg) and the heaviest infants (4.5-5.0 kg) had the most extreme weight-for-age and height-for-age scores initially but moved to less extreme values within about 12 months.

Overweight status at 7 years of age tended to increase as birth weight increased, with the greatest increase in prevalence in the highest birth-weight (3.61-5.56 kg).

Obesity during pregnancy linked to high birth weight

[57]
Dr. Kramer examined a Swedish study linking women's weight in early pregnancy and their own birth weights. There was a statistically significant increased risk of having a BMI of over 25 during pregnancy among women who were born large for gestional age.

The effect of high birth weight may become more important as birth-weight distributions move toward higher weights.

Breathfeeding and obesity

[57]
The relationship between breastfeeding and obesity data was also discussed by Dr Kramer. He found that high maternal BMI is associated with reduced breastfeeding initiation and duration. Therefore, the higher weight status of bottle-fed infants could be attributable to selection of children of higher-weight mothers, who were both less likely to have breastfed and more likely to have higher-weight children.

In addition, highly controlling bottle feeding practices at 18 month may interfere with the child's ability to self-regulate energy intake, an effect that may be long-lasting.

Dr Kramer concluded that there is probably a small protective effect of breastfeeding on child obesity but is not of major public health importance. Neither birth-weight changes nor breastfeeding explains the obesity epidemic.

Decreased physical activity as key role to the obesity epidemic

[57]
Dr Kramer believes that a decrease in physical activity to be the main reason for the obesity epidemic and less the higher energy intake.

Influences on the nutritional behaviour of children

[58]
Barbara Devaney, PhD, Mathematica Policy Research, Princeton, New Jersey According to Dr Devaney reported energy intakes of infants and toddlers are exceeding estimated requirements. The transition in infant feeding from true infant foods to more adult foods occurs during a long period but begins mostly at 9 to 11 months. As infants start to make the transition, the adult diet has a significant influence on what children eat. With the importance of table foods in the diets of children through the second year, changing what toddlers are eating may require changing what adults and older siblings are eating.

Stiff arteries found in obese children

[59]
Dr. Catherine L. Davis, 2010, using a non-invasive measure of pulse wave velocity, report that children with a greater body mass index, more body fat and less endurance had stiffer central arteries compared to leaner and fitter children. The researcher explained that stiff arteries are the first sign of atherosclerosis, and regular exercise decreases risks of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

The author continues her research on the effect of exercise on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease which is also associated with hardening of the arteries. This liver disease is found in 40 percent of obese children, and is often symptomless. It causes inflammation and scarring and ends in liver damage and failure. Exercise of 20 to 40 minutes of daily exercise were found to reduces inflammation, visceral fat, body mass index and insulin levels.

Nutritional and flavour programming early in life

[57]
According to Dr. Julie Menella, of the Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvaniathe eating preferences of children are guided by their senses and not cognitive decisions. These senses are well developed in utero but continue to change during development. There is mounting evidence of nutritional and flavour programming early in life.

Infants can detect a diversity of flavours in amniotic fluid and mother's milk. They accept new foods, such as cereals, more readily if they are prepared with their mother's milk. The flavour profile of human milk reflects the mother's diet and the culture in which the infant is born and is similar to the flavour profile experienced in utero.

These findings are the first experimental demonstration that prenatal and early postnatal exposure to a flavour enhances the acceptance and enjoyment of that flavour during weaning. Dr. Menella concludes that the more varied the mother's diet is during pregnancy and lactation, the more likely it is that the infant will accept new flavours, and that these very early flavour experiences may provide the foundation for cultural and ethnic differences in cuisine. Understanding both the causes of and likely solutions to poor food habits and choices requires attention to the complex interactions of our genes, experiences, and lifestyles.

Parental feeding styles and children's eating and weight

[60]
Dr Jane Wardle of the University College, London, presented an overview about the relationships between parental feeding styles and children's eating and weight, and came to the conclusion that greater control is probably associated with slightly lower weight and lower weight gain.

Breathfeeding and the time of introduction of solids

[61]
Dr Andrew Ness, from the University of Bristol, Bristol, England, presented results from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC).

The associations of breastfeeding and introduction of solids with obesity risk were examined. Breastfeeding appeared to be protective against obesity in unadjusted models, but these associations did not remain after adjustment. Some models examined the effect of the timing of the introduction of solids. There was a suggestion in the unadjusted odds that the later introduction of solids reduced the risk of obesity, but this was not the case after adjustment.

Family characteristics

[61]
Dr. Ness found that for children whose mother's BMI was >30, there was a 4.5-fold increase in obesity risk, which was reduced to 4.2-fold after adjustment. For children whose father's BMI was >30, there was a nearly 3-fold increase in obesity risk, which was reduced to 2.7-fold after adjustment. If both parents had BMIs of >30, then the child's risk was increased 11.7-fold. Children with no siblings had an increased risk of obesity, with an OR that increased to 2.2 and became statistically significant with adjustment. None of the other family factors was a significant predictor of obesity risk.

Effects of activity, several characteristics of children's lifestyles

[57]
Dr. Ness noted that the effect of activity measured at 38 month showed that watching television more than 8 hours//week increased obesity risk, compared with less than 4 hours/week. Obesity risk was increased if less time was spent asleep overnight. More active children sleep better in opposition to those who are sitting and eating in front of the television.

Defining obesity

[62]
Obesity is defined according to sex- and age-specific BMI cut-off points proposed by the International Obesity Task Force and Dietary Recommendations for Children and Adolescents: A Guide for Practitioners; Pediatrics, February 1, 2006 from the American Heart Association.

Meal frequency and obesity

[63] André Michael Toschke from the Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany and colleagues assessed the relationship between meal frequency and childhood obesity. An inverse association between meal frequency and the prevalence of obesity in adulthood had been related in previous studies.

The scientists found that prevalence of obesity decreased by number of daily meals: three or fewer meals, 4.2%; four meals, 2.8%; and 5 or more meals, 1.7%.

They concluded that the protective effect of an increased daily meal frequency on obesity in children appeared to be independent of other risk factors for childhood obesity, and might be due to a modulation of the response of hormones such as insulin.

Frequency of meals

The hunger hormone Ghrelin defends against depression and anxiety of chronic stress but increases obesity.

[64]
Zigman and Lutter found that the "hunger hormone" ghrelin might also defend against symptoms of stress-induced depression and anxiety, but also increases food intake and body weight.

Ghrelin is produced in the gastrointestinal tract, ion and weight loss could have an anti-depressant effect and be reinforcing for this illness. [65]

A single large daily meal is associated with elevated fasting glucose levels and delayed insulin response

[66]
Marc P. Mattson and colleagues 2007 evaluated the influence of reduced meal frequency without a reduction in energy intake on glucose metabolism in normal-weight, healthy male and female subjects.

The authors found that consuming 1 meal per day elevates morning fasting plasma glucose levels, is associated with greater and more sustained elevations of plasma glucose concentrations, delayed insulin response in the oral glucose tolerance test, and elevated ghrelin levels compared with 3 meals per day. The impaired glucose tolerance was reversible.

Reduction of meal frequency may increase cardiovascular risks

[67]
Researchers found that some rodent and monkey had an extend lifespan when meal frequency was reduced. Mark P. Mattson and colleagues 2007 in a follow article report the outcomes on humans of such a meal reduction frequency.
They found that normal-weight subjects are able to comply with a 1 meal/d diet with no significant effects on heart rate, body temperature, or most of the blood variables measured. However, hunger was significantly increased, blood pressure and in total, LDL-, and HDL-cholesterol concentrations increased ; and cortisol significant decreased.

They concluded that Normal-weight subjects are able to comply with a 1 meal/d diet. However of concern were some cardiovascular disease risk factors, and hematologic variables.

Overweight increases risk of cancer

[68] Andrew G. Renehan and colleagues 2008 assess the strength of associations between BMI and different sites of cancer and associations between sex and ethnic groups.

The authors found a strong associations between a 5 kg/m2 increase in BMI and endometrial, gallbladder, oesophageal adenocarcinoma, and renal cancer, but a weaker association between BMI and postmenopausal breast, pancreatic, thyroid, and colon cancers in women.

In man the positive associations between increased BMI and rectal cancer and malignant melanoma in men was weak. The association between BMI and leukaemia, multiple myeloma, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in both sexes was weak.

The authors concluded that increased BMI is associated with increased risk of malignancies, and differs between sexes. The risk of premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer is increased in the Asia-Pacific population.

Large body size at the age of seven reduces later breast cancer risk

[69]
Li and colleagues 2010 report that a large body type at age seven years was associated with a decreased risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. A large body size at age seven was especially protective against estrogen receptor negative tumours, which generally fare worse in terms of prognosis.The authors, however, stress that other factors such as large birth weight and a high adult BMI increase breast cancer risk.

Pictograms were used for the classification of childhood body size ranging from very skinny to very fat. Subjects may assess their own body type at present and how they remembered themselves at seven years old using the pictograms. The authors concluded that information on childhood shape from old photographs, childhood body size is potentially useful for building breast cancer risk or prognosis models. The authors could not explain the mechanisms of the protective effect.

A classification and regression trees analysis on risk factors for childhood overweight (CART analysis)

[70] André Michael Toschke and colleagues used high weight gain, parental overweight and obesity, lack of breastfeeding, parental education under 10 years, high birth weight, having older siblings, ethnic affiliation, and maternal smoking in pregnancy as predictors for later overweight or obesity.

The classification and regression trees (CART) was used as predictive analytical method. They found that identifying children at high risk for overweight at school entry by means of predictors detectable at 2 years of age the authors found that the Weight gain >10,000 grams and obese parents accounted for the best reliable positive predictive value of 40%. In this subgroup of 4% of the entire population, two of five children will be overweight at school entry.

These results reflect an improved but still insufficient identification of high-risk children even with an optimal set of of predictors. Toschke came to the conclusion that positive predictive values might be insufficient to allow for decision-making regarding specific interventions targeted at high-risk children: Most children would undergo an unnecessary intervention with potential side effects if intervention were based on the sets of predictors assessed in this study.

Classification and regression trees (CART)

[71]
Predictive analytics is an area of statistical analysis that deals with extracting information from data and using it to predict future trends and behaviour patterns. The core of predictive analytics relies on capturing relationships between explanatory variables and the predicted variables from past occurrences, and exploiting it to predict future outcomes. Such predictions rarely take the form of absolute statements, and are more likely to be expressed as numbers that correspond to the odds of a particular event or behaviour taking place in the future.


Classification and regression trees (CART)

CART is a non-parametric technique that produces either classification or regression trees, depending on whether the dependent variable is categorical or numeric, respectively.

Predictive values are essential for objective evaluation of the predictive potential of tests under consideration for the general population or test results on the individual level. Furthermore, decision trees provide a useful and precise tool for decision-making in the physician's daily routine by simple visual assessment of disease probability without the need of any calculations.


The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study: The combination of the ingredients of the Mediterranean diet and not vegetable and fruit considered separately reduce heart disease risk

[72] The Mediterranean diet has higher intake of plant foods and fish, moderate intake of wine and lower intake of animal products. It includes garlic, cucumber, olive oil, salad greens, capsicum, legumes, tomato, feta and ricotta cheeses, olives, onion, watermelon, steamed fish and boiled chicken. It is therefore a rich source of antioxidants reducing oxidative damage, moacids believed to stabilise the heart rhythm, and fibre, and relatively few countries have lower mortality than do native-born Australians.

The researchers found for the Mediterranean-style diet 41 per cent reduction, while for vegetables and fresh fruit considered separately, only 31-34 per cent mortality from cardiovascular disease (CVD)risk reduction was observed.

The authors concluder that frequent consumption of traditional Mediterranean foods is associated with reduced cardiovascular mortality after controlling for important risk factors and country of birth.


Vegetarian nutrition

Vegetarian nutrition may lead to undersupply of iron, proteins, calcium, vitamin D and vitamin B12.
Iron can be got from wholemeal bread and green vegetable such as broccoli or kale (Brassica oleracea sabellica). Proteins are get from vegetables wholemeal bread, cereals, legumes, nuts, milk, cheese and yoghurt. Calcium, vitamin D and vitamin B12 can be supplied by milk and milk products.

Calcium supplementation is usually found in vitamin and mineral supplement formulas as calcium hydrogen phosphate. Gadot Biochemical company, however, offers a citrate based calcium compound, designed to supplement liquid food products conveniently with a readily absorbable form of calcium. The company claims the product to be suitable for soy milk and other soy based products, rice milk and other dairy alternative beverages fortification. According to Gadot specification it is free of raw materials from bovine origin and any food allergens according to annex 3a of EU directive 2003/89.

Although soymilk is recognized as a nutritious beverage, it contains much less calcium than cowmilk (20-30 mg/100 ml vs. 100-120 mg/100 ml), so fortification is essential.

Potassium, the major intracellular cation in the body, is required for normal cellular function. Severe potassium deficiency is characterized by hypokalemia. Moderate potassium deficiency, which typically occurs without hypokalemia, is characterized by increased blood pressure, increased salt sensitivity, an increased risk of kidney stones, and increased bone turnover (as indicated by greater urinary calcium excretion and biochemical evidence of reduced bone formation and increased bone resorption).

An inadequate intake of dietary potassium may also increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, particularly stroke. On the basis of available data, an Adequate Intake (AI) for potassium is set at 4.7 g (120 mmol)/day for all adults. This level of dietary intake (i.e., from foods) should maintain lower blood pressure levels, reduce the adverse effects of sodium chloride intake on blood pressure, reduce the risk of recurrent kidney stones, and possibly decrease bone loss.
It is generally agreed that the bioavailability of Organic Calcium is much higher than Inorganic Calcium. From the litreature it appears that the bioavailability of Organic Calcium is 2 to 5 times higher than Calcium Carbonate.
On the other hand, the various organic forms of calcium show more or less the same bioavailability with slight advantage to Calcium Citrate. In addition, potassium/calcium combination may enhance calcium absorption. GADOCAL K contains therefore 15 % calcium and 6 % potassium. [73]

Salt intake and hypertension

He and Mac Gregor 2004 assessed the effect of the modest reduction in salt intake recommended by WHO 2003, SACN 2003 and Whelton 2002, and looked at the magnitude of the reduction in blood pressure in relation to the magnitude of the reduction in salt intake.

The authors concluded that a modest and long-term reduction in population salt intake could reduce strokes, heart attacks, and heart failure, and there is a correlation between the magnitude of salt reduction and the magnitude of blood pressure reduction. They suggest a daily intake range of 3 to 12 g/day. [74]

Heikki Karppanen and Eero Mervaala in 2006 wrote that the level of sodium is very high, whereas that of potassium, calcium, and magnesium is low compared with the level in diets composed of unprocessed, resulting in hypertension. The authors stress that reductio of salt intake, both alone and particularly in combination with increases in intakes of potassium, calcium, and magnesium, is able to lower average blood pressure levels substantially. [75]

He, Marrero and MacGregor in a study in 2007 note that an increase of 1 g/day in salt intake was related to an increase of 0.4 mm Hg in systolic and 0.6 mm Hg in pulse pressure. Their study provides further support for a reduction in salt intake in children and adolescents. [76]

Alderman commenting the study of He and colleagues 2007 point to the fact that measures of discretionary sodium use did not correlate with blood pressure, supporting the Cochrane Collaboration conclusion that there was not sufficient evidence for a general dietary recommendation to reduce sodium intake.

Alderman writes that the findings in adults are probably true for youngsters as well. However, lowering sodium intake increases sympathetic nerve activity, reduces insulin sensitivity, increases the activity of the renin-angiotensin system, and increases aldosterone secretion.

The author of the comment asks the question if these or other changes occur in children and call for solid knowledge based on evidence of benefit and risk preceding any clinical or public health intervention. The outcomes of such interventions should be tested in clinical trials to avoid doing harm. [77]

He, Marrero and MacGregor reviewed the evidence that relates salt intake to blood pressure and cardiovascular disease. They concluded that reducing salt from the current intake of 10-12 g/day to the recommended level of 5-6 g/day will have a major effect on blood pressure and cardiovascular mortality. [78]

Salt reduction in general population may increase mortality up to 50%, new study says

[79] A new European study leaded by Dr Katarzyna Stolarz-Skrzypek questions benefits of salt reduction of the diet in populations around the world. The study also denies the calculations which estimate savings of lives and healthcare costs promoting diet salt reduction.

The authors looked at the long term relationship of 24-hour urinary sodium excretion to blood pressure and health outcomes, using data of the Flemish Study on Genes, Environment, and Health Outcomes (1985-2004) and the European Project on Genes in Hypertension (1999-2001).

Mortality 50% Higher in the Lowest Tertile of Sodium Excretion

The study reports that among 3681 participants during 7.9 years, cardiovascular deaths decreased across increasing tertiles of 24-hour sodium excretion, from 50 deaths in the low- (mean 107 mmol) to 24 in the medium- (mean 168 mmol) and 10 in the high-excretion group (mean 260 mmol, resulting in respective death rates of 4.1%, 1.9%, and 0.8%.

The authors say that it might not be right to impose a general reduction on sodium intake. They also support the theory that sodium restriction is meaningful for patients who already have hypertension and perhaps for patients with heart failure, but there are very few arguments showing that reducing salt intake in the general population would result in substantial benefit, despite a very small rise in systolic blood pressure of 1.71 mm Hg for each 100-mmol increment in sodium intake, during the follow-up of 6.2 years.

The authors suggest that the inverse association between lower sodium intake and higher cardiovascular mortality, stating that a salt intake low enough to decrease blood pressure also increases sympathetic nerve activity, decreases insulin sensitivity, activates the renin-angiotensin system, and stimulates aldosterone secretion.

Advocates of salt reduction

Dr Graham MacGregor, an expert on salt reduction and campaigner to reduce salt content in foods, presents doubts on the conclusions of the paper of Stolarz-Skrzypek and colleagues arguing that it presents severe methodological problems. Mac Gregor reaffirms that everything. He calls on the overall evidence in favour of salt reduction and the recommendations of the World Health Organization which to reduce salt intake as the next thing after tobacco reduction. [80] MacGregor argues that the reduction of salt by the amounts of actual recommendations does not increase sympathetic tone, there is a trivial increase in renin, and no adverse effects result.

  Salt grams/day Sodium grams/day
Current daily intake    
in Europe [81] 8 - 11 3 - 5
     
Recommendations    
WHO Recommendation [82] < 5 < 2,5
SACN Recommendation [83] 5 - 6 2 - 2,5


World Action on Salt and Health (WASH)

[84] He, Jenner and Macgregor 2010 refer to the overwhelming evidence that our current high-salt intake is the major factor increasing blood pressure, a major cause of cardiovascular disease and kidney disease worldwide. Reducing salt intake to less than 5-6 g/day could prevent yearly millions of deaths. Reduction of salt added to foods, clear labelling on food products, and increasing public awareness of the harmful effects of salt on health were already implemented in Finnland and UK and are being followed by many developed countries. However, much must be done in developing countries where up to 80% of global blood pressure diseases occur. World Action on Salt and Health (WASH) promotes worldwide reduction of salt intake. [85]


Low birth weight is associated with salt sensitivity

[86]
Dr Giacomo Simonetti and colleagues 2008 found that children aged between 7 and 15 who had low birth weights are more likely to be salt sensitive, have increased blood pressure with higher intakes of salt, than children of the same age with normal birth weights, and are more likely to develop hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and renal disease later in life. Salt sensitivity was present in 37% and 47% of all of the low birth weight and small for gestational age children, respectively, kidney length.

The authors believe that that smaller kidneys leading to salt sensitivity is probably one reason of that. They recommend that low-birth-weight infants avoid a lifelong excessive salt intake. They stress that fast food may also be harmful to these persons. Infants with low birth weights frequently come from complicated pregnancies. A healthy lifestyle during pregnancy is therefore beneficial for mother and newborn. They call for more studies on this subject.

Conversion salt and sodium

Sodium is responsible for elevated blood pressure, heart diseases and stroke.
UK Food Standards Agency recommends not to eat more than 6g salt a day and provides a salt calculator at http://www.salt.gov.uk/how_much_is_6.shtml

In 1994, the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy (COMA) recommended reducing the average salt intake of the population from 9g to 6g a day because of the link between high salt intake and high blood pressure.

National guidance regarding salt varies in Europe. Belgium recommends less than 8.75 grams a day. Portgual recommends less than 5g and countries such as Greece and Hungary advice people to avoid salt and foods rich in salt.

The WHO intake goal

It is less than 5g per day and is contained in the joint WHO/FAO report on diet, nutrition, and the prevention of chronic diseases.

The Expert Report's specific recommendations on diet include limiting fat to between 15 and 30 percent of total daily energy intake and saturated fats to less than 10 percent of this total. Carbohydrates, the report suggests, should provide the bulk of energy requirements - between 55 and 75 percent of daily intake and free sugars should remain beneath 10 percent. Protein should make up a further 10-15 percent of calorie intake and salt should be restricted to less than 5 grams a day. Intake of fruit and vegetables should be plumped up to reach at least 400 grams a day. [87]

Australia, New Zealand, Canada and U.S. have a guidance of less than 6g salt intake/day.

Singapore recommends less than 5g/day and Japan has a guidance of less than 10g salt/day. Brazil has a guidance of less than 5g salt intake/day all other countries of South America have no guidance on this matter, remaining a lot of work to be done by WHO to convince these countries to tackle the problem of salt-reduction.

Consensus Action on Salt and Health

This organization urges consumers to boycott foods that contain either more than 1.25g of salt (0.5g of sodium) per 100g or more than 2.4g of salt per serving, forcing manufacturers to reformulate excessively salty foods. World Action on Salt and Health (WASH) was established in 2005 and is a global group with the mission to improve the health of populations throughout the world by achieving a gradual reduction in salt intake. [88]

Salt reduction- Lower Sodium Intake Recommendations to Adults

USA

[89]
According to the CDC actually about 70 percent of American adults fall into categories (African Americans, people over 40, and people with existing hypertension) of people who should consume no more than 1,500 mg of sodium per day. But to achieve recommended intakes, even most of the remaining 30 percent of adults should cut back, too.

CDC says that the average sodium consumption for people aged 2 and over is about 3,400 mg per day. Recommended are a maximum of 2,300 mg daily for people who aren't in the categories above. The Center for Science in the Public Interest notes that the 3,400-mg figure comes from a national survey that does not include salt added at the table or during home cooking and does not correct for the participants' underreporting of foods eaten. Actual average consumption is probably closer to 4,000 mg. [90]

UK

[91]
The Food Standards Agency has set a target of reducing the average salt consumption of adults to 6g a day by 2010. The Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) also set lower recommended maximum levels of salt intake for babies and children for the first time.

European Food Safety Authority

[92]
Mean daily sodium intakes of populations in Europe range from about 3-5 g (about 8-11g salt) and are well in excess of dietary needs (about 1.5 g sodium/day in adults). The main source of sodium in the diet is from processed foods (about 70-75% of the total intake), with about 10-15% from naturally occurring sodium in unprocessed foods and about 10-15% from discretionary sodium added during cooking and at the table.

New uncertainty about benefits of salt reduced diet

[93] Taylor et al.2011, reviewing different studies, grouped the patients into a group with normal blood pressure, a group with high blood pressure and a group diagnosed with heart failure and associated them with the nutritional habits of salt intake.

The authors found no strong evidence of benefit from salt reduction in the normal group and in the high blood pressure group, however, the group with congestive heart failure salt reduction increased the risk of death.

The authors call for more studies on the effect of low salt diets and stress that there is need to confirm whether restriction of sodium is harmful for people with heart failure. However, the authors also say that consuming less salt could still be beneficial to the health of people with both normal and high blood pressure. The salt intake limit of 6 g/day remains unchanged.

Salt fortified with iron and iodine to reduce micronutrients deficiencies

[94] Researchers suggest iodine and iron fortification of salt to improve worldwide iron status in populations where fortification of other staple foods does not achieve the desired coverage [1]. Horton et al 2011 reports that iron deficiency is one of the most widespread micronutrients deficiencies worldwide, and is associated with health consequence and cognitive impairment. The authors suggests to fortify salt with iron and iodine at a level of 1 mg iron/g salt should provide 5 mg iron per day per person, depending on iodised salt consumption. Fortification of cereals may not be effective in developing countries because milling is often done in local mills. Double fortification of salt may be a little costlier as supplementing wheat. However it will reach the whole population, while wheat is not a major staple food.

Malnutrition affects brain development, learning and behaviour

[95] According to Nevin and Scrimshaw 1998 the nutritional deficiencies of protein-energy, iron, and iodine.may cause permanent adverse effects on learning and behaviour. The authors call for adequate protein-energy, iron, and iodine during the first two years of life to improve the cognitive performance of children. Iron deficiency affects irreversibly the brain enzymes involved in cognition and behaviour. Aside of deficiency of protein-energy, iron, and iodine the authors also highlight insufficient content of omega-3 fatty acids in cow's milk and infant formulas.

According to Melse-Boonstra A, Jaiswal 2010 iodine deficiency during foetal development and early childhood is associated with cognitive impairment, this may be improved introducing maternal iodine supplementation. Iodine deficiency in children can be detected measuring the thyroid-stimulating hormone in newborns and thyroglobulin in older children. Adequate salt iodisation will cover the requirements of infants and children as well as pregnant women. However, close monitoring remains essential. [96]

The World Health Organization and the United Nations Children's Fund aim the elimination of iodine deficiency implementing universal salt supplementation. The organisations, however, recommend a complementary strategy of iodine supplements as a temporary measure when salt iodisation could not be implemented at high coverage, having in mind that universal salt iodisation should remain the primary strategy to eliminate iodine deficiency. [97]

Claims

[98]

Low Sodium/Salt

A claim that a food is low in sodium/salt, and any claim likely to have the same meaning for the consumer, may only be made where the product contains no more than 0,12 g of sodium, or the equivalent value for salt, per 100 g or per 100 ml. For waters, other than natural mineral waters falling within the scope of Directive 80/777/EEC, this value should not exceed 2 mg of sodium per 100 ml.

Very Low Sodium/Salt

A claim that a food is very low in sodium/salt, and any claim likely to have the same meaning for the consumer, may only be made where the product contains no more than 0,04 g of sodium, or the equivalent value for salt, per 100 g or per 100 ml. This claim shall not be used for natural mineral waters and other waters.

Sodium-Free or Salt-Free

A claim that a food is sodium-free or salt-free, and any claim likely to have the same meaning for the consumer, may only be made where the product contains no more than 0,005 g of sodium, or the equivalent value for salt, per 100 g.

Labels

Sodium is usually listed in the nutritional information on food labels. If salt is listed, sodium chloride is meant.

Conversion Salt to sodium and sodium to salt

Conversion Potassium chloride and potassium Salt replacer
Blends of KCl (potassium chloride), sugar, yeast extract, and flavours are being developed to hide the bitterness of potassium chloride,with salty perception but does not work against the active yeast of a dough system.

Gender/Age Fibre, g Sodium, mg Potassium, mg
1-3 y 19 <1500 3000
4-8 y      
Female 25 <1900 3800
Male 25 <1900 3800
9-13 y      
Female 26 <2200 4500
Male 31 <2200 4500
14-18 y      
Female 29 <2300 4700
Male 38 <2300 4700


Complete low caloric servings

Low caloric serving "pro figur" are servings of 250 g of yoghurt enriched with vitamins, pineapple, cereals vitamins and minerals. The servings are to small to avoid hunger. Artificial sweetener are used not being in consent to an organic food. The amount of cereals should be increased. the flavouring of the product is very intensive turning it very soon to be felt awful. Intensive flavouring should always be avoided in products which are supposed to be used over a long time.
It is advisable to go back to the recommendations of the health departments and associations like the DGE in order to reduce or to avoid overweight:
1.- Increase the amount of vegetables and fruits.
2.- Reduce fat
3.- Eat fish
4.- Practice sport to burn excessive calories.
These recommendations lead to normal weight without synthetic modified foods. The main goal which Nestlé tries to achieve with "profigur" is to boost sails taking out sails from drugstores where low caloric ready servings are well sold. However even there these servings have proven to bring no success on lasting weight reduction.


Low fat nutrition

[99] Low fat nutrition has proved to be suitable to reduce body weight.
The Ernärungsphychologische Forschungsstelle in Göttingen[99] (Nutrition Psychology Research Center in Göttingen) has made a study related to body weight reducing diet changing from high fat to low fat nutrition. High fat sausages and cheese types were exchanged by low fat foods. Milk and yoghurt with 1,5 % fat were taken in the nutrition plan. Whipped-cream gateau was exchanged with fruit tart with a bottom of yeast pastry. Foods based on carbohydrates such as vegetables and fruits were unlimited allowed.
The result of this study was successful. In 8 weeks weight reduction of 1,5 up to 2,9 Kg took place. This nutrition should be used to body weight reduction instead of pills or special foods which cannot be consumed a whole life.
The low fat nutrition keeping the old nutrition habits can be followed for an unlimited period. It is therefore an alternative to the reduction diets which can be followed only during short time ending in the jo-jo effect.

Two-part drink to promote satiety

[100] Pelkman and colleagues designed a two-part beverage (a solution of alginate-pectine and a solution of calcium) producing a stable, high-fibre gel in the stomach, thereby avoiding adverse palatability of the highly viscous fibre. The drinks were administered twice a daily. A significant reduction in food intake was observed.

According to the authors the gel delays the absorption of nutrients stimulating the formation of incretins, which are gastrointestinal hormones, like glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), that cause an increase in the amount of insulin released from the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans after eating. They also slow the rate of absorption of nutrients into the blood stream by reducing gastric emptying and may directly reduce food intake. [101]

The authors concluded that foods designed to enhance satiety may be an effective adjunctive therapy for weight loss and call for more studies on this subject.


Salt intake, Recommendations of the American Heart Association

[102]
According to the American Heart Association physicians recommend keeping salt intake below 2,300 milligrams sodium (mg)(one teaspoon of salt) per day. For people with heart failure, recommended sodium intake is no more than 2,000 mg per day.

Sodium is present not alone in salt also in sodium alginate, sodium sulfite, sodium caseinate, disodium phosphate, sodium benzoate, sodium hydroxide, monosodium glutamate, sodium citrate and other ingredients.

High salt intake is the major reason of raising blood pressure, responsible for strokes and heart attacks.

Current intake in Europe varies between 10 and 15 grams/day,WHO which recommends no more than 5 grams of salt intake per day for every adult in the world.

The Consensus Action on Salt and Health, together with the UK's Specialist Advisory Committee on Nutrition, which advises the FSA, say that consumers should reduce their consumption to 6g a day.

About 80 per cent of salt is consumed through the consumption of processed food. Salt makes the product cheap, tasteless food edible, and more water to products can be added because it acts as a binder.

Robert Speiser, director of EuSalt, however, says that there is scientific evidence to suggest that reducing salt may not necessarily be in the interests of all consumers.

He says that two recent studies that concluded that there was no need to reduce salt among healthy people were neglected by regulators. According to Speiser the UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) is the only official authority to propose a signposting initiative that says it is necessary to reduce salt. The scientific evidence for this doesn't exist. Salt intake should remain determined by the needs of the individual.
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys ( NHANES)1960 to 1994 shows that the intake of fat in percent has decreased but the average body weight has increased. This was caused by a steady increase of all other components of food.
The NHANES paper shows that lowering fat intake lowers total cholesterol, lowers low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, reducing cardiovascular risks, but it also reduces the high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, increasing cardiovascular risk if it drops below 35 mg/decilitre. Trevor Smith says that a blanket condemnation of saturated fats is unwise. [103]. It has been shown by Scott Grundy that stearates (saturated fatty acids) does not raise blood cholesterol.[104] Lowering fat intake often lowers HDL cholesterol.
According to Trevor Smith it is sufficient to limit the fat intake to an average of one gram per kilogram of body weight, or target body weight per day. There is no need to count calories having a normal balanced diet. In addition one should limit animal fat intake avoid hydrogenated fats entirely, pefer olive and rapeseed oil, increase the consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains and prevention of excessive weight increasing physical activity like walking three miles a day at least five days a week, or an hour a day [105].

Salt consumption

[106]
The UK Food Standards Agency recommends for adults not to eat more than 6 gram salt a day. The daily recommended maximum for children depends on their age: These are the recommended maximums for children. It is better for them to have less.

The Agency advises to look at the nutritional information on the label:
High salted foods have 1.25g salt or more per 100g (0.5g sodium or more per 100g).
Low salted foods have 0.25g salt or less per 100g (0.1g sodium or less per 100g
The FSA classifies foods between high and low, as moderate salted foods.

Salt calculator

http://www.salt.gov.uk/salt_calculator.shtml

Nutritional habits

According to FSA, the taste buds get used to high levels of salt and may not notice the saltiness of some foods. Getting used to eating less salt the taste buds become more sensitive and can find out how salty foods taste which had been considered as not salty before.

Eating foods with less salt one gets used to this nutritional habit and they will become more tasty because lots of salt can hide more subtle flavours.

If children have too much salt, this could affect their health and give them a taste for salty food, being more likely to continue eating too much salt when they grow up. [107]

Mediterranean population change from healthy traditional Mediterranean diet to unhealthy diets high in meat and fast foods

[108]
According to a paper of the FAO, compiled by Josef Schmidhuber, the Mediterranean population is shifting from their traditional healthy diets, rich in cereals, fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, fish and olive oil, to diets with more meat, saturated fats and time-saving processed foods.

Studies say that the Mediterranean diet has benefits for arthritis, Alzheimer' s disease, hearth health and blood pressure, diabetes, asthma, lung disease, and allergies.

Schmidhuber studied the compliance of the diets in relation to protein, total lipids, fatty acids, carbohydrates, total dietary fibre, sugar, cholesterol, sodium chloride/sodium, and fruits and vegetables in the period of 1961 to 2003 compared with the recommendations of the WHO/FAO. The author blames the European agricultural policies as one of the main culprits, generating not only high costs for consumers and taxpayers when subsidies are paid to farmers, but even higher costs when consumers and taxpayers have to bear the health burden of over-consumption encouraged by these subsidies.

The diet has become too fat, too salty and too sweet, calories rising by 20 per cent from 2960 kcal to 3340 kcal in the last 40 years for Europe and even by 40 per cent in the countries around the Mediterraean Sea. Spain had the highest shift to fatty foods from 25 percent of fat to 40 percent of the diet.

Schmidhuber also stresses that in general the rise in supermarkets, changes in food distribution systems, and calorie needs declining as people lead more sedentary lifestyles are factors of the dietary shift in Europe. More women have jobs outside the home and convenience foods are preferred.

Non-EU Mediterranean countries adhere to diets higher in carbohydrates. Egypt is cited with a diet of 400 g of glycaemic carbohydrates per person per day.

The Nicotera Diet as reference of the Italian Mediterranean diet

[109]
Nicotera is a small town in the Calabria Region in Southern Italy which was selected as reference of Mediterranean diet studies. The population of Nicotera has a high consumption of virgin olive olive oil, legumes, vegetables, cereals and fish. Little meat, eggs, Cheese and milk are consumed and men drink red wine moderately.

A very low myocardial infarction of 4 cases out of 598 examined in 1957 in men was reported, together with only few cases of hypertension, overweight and obesity. Similar findings were observed in another study of 1960 at Corfu.

The Nicotera Diet is rich in: Bread, Cereals, legumes, potatoes, vegetables, fresh fruit, nuts, fish, wine, vegetable oils-especially virgin olive oil).
Milk, cheese, meat, eggs, animal fat and margarines, sweet beverages, cakes/pies/cookies, sugar are sparingly consumed in the Mediterranean diet.

Italian Mediterranean Diet reduces cardiovascular diseases risk factor and the progression of renal diseases

[110]
De Lorenzo and colleagues 20101 compared the effects of the Italian Mediterranean Diet, consisting of organic versus conventional foods in a healthy individuals and in Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) patients in order to decrease cardiovascular diseases risk factor and the progression of renal diseases. The body composition and biochemical parameters after 14 days of Italian Mediterranean Organic Diet, according to the "Nicotera diet" were measured.

The authors report improvements in the levels tHcy, phosphorus, microalbuminuria levels and cardiovascular diseases risk in healthy individuals and in CDK patients.

Fatty foods reduce physical endurance and brain function

[111]
Murray and colleagues 2009 found that high fat diet was detrimental for physical endurance capacity and cognitive functions in rats.

The authors argue that fatty acid oxidation is less efficient than glucose oxidation. This can influence the endurance capacity. Rats fed with a diet of 55 per cent calories from fat for nine days could run 50 per cent less far, and made more mistakes on a cognition test than animals fed a standard diet of 7.5 percent calories from fat.

The authors found increased levels of a specific protein called the "uncoupling protein" in the muscle and heart cells of the high-fat diet-fed rats, uncoupling the process of burning food stuffs for energy in the cells reducing thus the efficiency of the heart and muscles. Heart size in the high-fat diet-fed animals were increased. Skeletal muscle UCP3 expression was altered. This affects energy production and physical performance.

The authors stress that an optimal nutrition could improve athletes performance. Food producers should reformulate their high-fat products.

The position of AHA

[112]
The American Heart Association (AHA) commenting the study said that the outdated 2000 AHA guidelines had been used for the low-fat diet. The Association stresses that dietary fat restriction at 30% of calories is no longer part of the AHA guidelines 2005. The saturated-fat content has been reduced from 10% to 7% and the cholesterol content from 300 to 200 mg/day. The AHA does not support the Atkins diet. AHA remains firm in its proposition to reduce saturated fats stating that they raise LDL cholesterol. This is consistent with the National Cholesterol Education Program guidelines, the American Diabetes Association, and the US Department of Agriculture USDA.

The American Diabetes Association stated in January 2008 that low-carbohydrate diets should be considered for a maximum of one year.


Fit for Live

The book "Fit for Life " describes a separation diet like that of Dr. Atkins.
It gives an additional recommendation not to eat simultaneously products rich in proteins together with dietary fibres.

Arguments against the diet of Dr. Atkins and the book "Fit for Live"

Traditional physiology does not agree with the diet of separation of Dr. Atkins. Meat does not have dietary fibres. It is therefore necessary to eat meat together with vegetables and fruits. The fibres absorb rests of digestion.
Protein digestion starts in the stomach with chloridric acid, together with pepsin. In the intestines there are proteases such as produced by the pancreas and by the gall bladder.
Important proteasesare: trypsin peptidase elastase ribonuclease and others.
As the external layer of the intestines is also composed by proteins the danger of proteases to digest his own meat. Nature protects against an own digestion secreting a protective layer of mucus made of mucopolysaccharides . This is the origin of the denomination"mucous membrane" which is not attacked by proteases.
Sometimes however particles of enzymes get through the mucus barrier. damaging mucous cells which can regenerate rapidly.With protein rich nutrition there are more proteolytic enzymes secreted as in case which should of a normal nutrition.
Fibres of vegetables, fruits and cereals absorb excesses of enzymes.Fibres also accelerates passage of not digestible material through the intestines.
The diet of Dr. Hay advises the ingestion of proteins at night when the body rests permitting the enzymes to stay longer in the intestines.
The danger of intestinal cancer and other gastric malfunctions are possible.

Other low-carbohydrate diets


Zone diet

The Zone Diet was developed by Barry Sears, a former researcher in biotechnology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
It is based on the control of insulin by balancing protein and carbohydrate at each meal (1-4). The American Heart Association notes that food must be eaten in required proportions of protein (40), fat (30), carbohydrates (30). Menues are not appealing. Vegetable portions are very large. Food is low in copper. Theories and long-term results are not validated. Couuld result in weight maintenance if carefully followed. [13]


Protein Power

The Protein Power diet was developed by Michael R. Eades, M.D., and Mary Dan Eades, M.D. The principle of Protein Power is the restriction of carbohydrates - in particular refined ones.[113]
The American Heart Association notes that this diet is not practical for long term. Rigid rules must be observed. The diet is low in calcium, fibre, pantothenic acid, copper, manganese. It has limited food choice and is not practical for long term. It is high in total fat and saturated fat. No long term, validated studies are published.[113]

Low-Carbohydrate diets, like the Atkins diet may reduce beneficial gut bacteria

[114]
Sylvia Duncan and colleagues 2007 found in a study that prolonged use of very low-carbohydrate weight-loss diets may decreased concentrations of butyrate and butyrate-producing bacteria (mainly bifidobacteria) in faeces.

According to the authors butyrate production is determined by the content of fermentable carbohydrate in the diet. Other studies had found that butyrate stops cancer cells from growing, and so helps prevent colorectal cancer.

The authors stress that plenty of sources of fibre found in fruit and vegetables are important to provide the right sort of carbohydrates for the beneficial bacteria if low carbohydrate diets are to be consumed for long periods of time.
Other critics concerning this type of diet is the higher risk of clogged arteries and heart attack in the long-term.


Sugar Busters

[115] Sugar busters involves eating high fibre vegetables and whole grains. Fruits are encouraged and discourages saturated fats and transfats. It is important to eat three regular meals daily. Moderation in portions size is most important. Exercise is also on the program.
The American Heart Association notes that Sugar Buster eliminates many carbohydrate foods. Discourages eating fruit with meals. It is low in calcium, vitamin D, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, copper, potassium. [113]


Stillman Diet

[116]
It is a severe form of ketogenic diet. Nothing is permitted if it is not mentioned in a list. The american Heart Association notes that Stillman diet is low in fibre, vitamin A, thiamine, vitamin C, vitamin D, folate, pantothenic acid, calcium, copper, magnesium, manganese, potassium. There are no long-term, valid studies published. There are extreme limitations in food choice, and very little variety. [113]

Study comparing the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN diets the A to Z Weight Loss Study recommends Atkins diet for weight loss

[117] [118]
Gardner and colleagues 2007 compared Atkins, Zone, Ornish and LEARN weight-loss diets representing a spectrum of popular low to high carbohydrate intake for effects on weight loss and related risks. These diets have challenged recommendations advising a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet for weight loss. The authors report weight loss was greater for women in the Atkins diet group compared with the other diet groups at 12 months: Atkins, -4.7 kg , Zone, -1.6 kg , LEARN, -2.6 kg , and Ornish, -2.2 kg. The metabolic effects of Atkins diet were comparable or more favourable than those found in the other diets.

The researchers recommend a low-carbohydrate, high-protein, high-fat diet such as Atkins diet for weight loss. However, long-term effects and mechanisms are still unknown.


Ketosis and the ketogenic diet

[119]
Elevated levels of ketones in the blood is called ketosis. It can occur during fasting, during a very high fat diet or during a long lasting deficiency in carbohydrate supply. This is the principle of the ketogenic diet. Atkins diet, which is used basically as low-glycemic index diet, may also cause ketosis. There are three ketones formed under hunger (also called " ketone bodies"): acetoacetate, acetone and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA). [120]

The fatty acids with participation of glucagon are digested in the liver to ketone compounds in order to liberate the needed energy. This is to see in opposition to the formation of D-glucose from carbohydrates to liberate energy. Ketones are burned in muscle and other tissues. High levels of ketones in tissue reduce the pH level. This is called ketoacidosis. One ketone is acetone which may cross the blood/brain barrier and, if in high concentration, causes central nervous disorders.

Deficiency of insulin in diabetics may lead to ketosis.

It seems that fasting or high fat diet known as ketogenic diet is appropriate to induce ketosis for medical treatment of a specific neurological disorder. It should not be used as a body weight reducing diet.

Triglycerides used in ketogenic diets

Medium-chain triglyceride ketogenic diet for adults is being suggested by Schiff and colleagues. The researchers recommend a therapeutic trial of the ketogenic diet in intractable epilepsy for all ages. [121]
Foods used in the diet include high - triglyceride dairy products (e.g., butter, cream), mayonnaise and peanut butter. Carbohydrates, found in bread and starches, are eliminated in the diet, and liquid and calorie intake are often restricted as well in order to aid ketone accumulation.

Dr. Richard Veech at NIH in a study, concludes that ketone bodies increase metabolic efficiency, while decreasing production of free radicals, may treat neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, and the heart and brain operate 25% more efficiently using ketones as a source of energy. [122] [123]

Alternative sources of ketones to avoid high fat diet for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's patients

[124]
Richard Veech and colleagues (2000) found that the elevation of ketones may offer neuroprotection in the treatment or prevention of both Alzheimer's disease, where therapy is lacking, and Parkinson's disease, where therapy with L-dopa is time limited. The researchers recommend alternative sources of ketones, produced biotechnologically to overcome the atherogenic potential of the high-fat ketogenic diet used in childhood epilepsy.

The Mayo diet

The Mayo diet has no connection with the famous Mayo-Clinic of USA. It is a protein rich and fat reduced diet (1.000 to 1.500 kcal)
The diet includes 3 eggs every day, meat, fruits and vegetables.
The diet is not well balanced. It is very high in cholesterol, and even for short time not suitable.


Ovo-lacto-vegetarian diets


Bircher-Benner diet

It is the ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet from Dr. Max Bircher-Benner which according to Dr. Bircher-Benner

The diet contains minimal amount of food

The diet contains lacto-vegetable food, at least 70% food of vegetable origin as muesli, fresh fruits, vegetable, salads, only moderate heat is used to prepare food. All ingredients should be of ecological origin.
No potatoes and no fish is allowed
The Birchner-Benner diet avoids meat and meat products being therefore low in animal fatty acids, cholesterol and purine. This is positive in case of gout, coronary diseases and disorder of the fatty acid metabolism.
Like every lacto-vegetarian diet undersupply of iodine and iron can take place.


Evers diet from the physician Josev Evers

The Evers Diet was at first developed to be applied in case of Multiple sclerosis.
It is a moderate ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet with germinated cereals (containing high level of polyunsaturated fatty acids.) Ingredients should be of natural, unmodified origin. " Denaturated" food resulting from industrial processing was considered as being the reason for diseases of industrial era.
The diet has different levels to be applied on different diseases:

Comment

The ban of potatoes is unreasonable. Potatoes are low in calories, and dietary fibres and vitamin rich.
Ground, unheated meat is a danger to weak patients because of possible bacterial hazard.


Waerland diet, Waerland, Sweden

This diet was established to clean intestines, to balance acid and base metabolism.
Regulate the intestinal flora. Useful bacteria from milk and plants are in confrontation with harmful bacteria from meat, eggs and fish. The diet has low amount of food. Raw vegetable meals are followed by cereals meals. Milk, fruits and vegetables are considered as alkaline food. Instructions about sleeping and working time are given. In the morning 1/2 litre of potato-vegetable soup is taken followed by warm bed rest lying on stomach.
The Waerland diet cannot be explained. Meat, eggs and fish cannot be considered as harmful and many claims are not true.


Danger of sudden changes of nutrition

Increasing Salads and other vegetables increase intake of certain vitamins like folate, vitamin A and K.

Decreasing high caloric foods like dairy products, red meat, salad oil or eggs reduces intake of minerals such as calcium zinc and selenium, vitamin D, E, B12 and essential fatty acids.


Anthroposophical nutrition

[125]
It was established by Rudolf Steiner. It should develop consciousness, to live in reconciliation with nature, nutrition as part of the holistic doctrine.
Main recommendations are: Ovo-lacto-vegetable nutrition with low content of meat. Avoid potatoes as they destroy instinct and promote materialism. Ban of use of pressure cooking and frozen food as they are "enemies of life".

Comment

[126] [127]
Many of the doctrines of anthroposophy cannot be followed. The ban of potatoes, pressure cooking and frozen food is not tenable.


Macrobiotic nutrition according M.Kushi

Macrobiotic nutrition was founded by G.Ohsawa, Japan. His nutrition was dangerous and some people died using this diet. In USA macrobiotic nutrition according Ohsawa was prohibited.
M.Kushi modernized the content of macrobiotic nutrition. A short use of this nutrition is harmless. It is harmful and not indicated to be followed for a log period. Macrobiotic nutrition is a part of Zen-Buddhism a kind of philosophy of life.
Life energy comes from vegetable nutrition, cereals in the highest form.
Contrast from passive to active, from night to day, from feminine to masculine, is the principle of Yin and Yang which were transferred to food by Kushi. No milk, and milk products, no meat and tea are consumed.

The Jo-Jo effect reviewed

Two important studies recently reviewed the knowledge about the Jo-Jo effect, following a diet. These studies received much attention in 2007 following the effort to tackle the obesity problem in large parts of the population of developed countries.

Rena Wing and James Hill of the University of Colorado started in 1994 "The National Weight-Control Register". [128]

In Germany Joachim Westenhöfer of the Hamburger Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften started years ago the "Lean Habits Study". [129]

The strategy

Both studies agreed with foregoing studies in the strategy to counter overweight:

The physiology of overweight and Jo-Jo effect

The authors stress the fact that a variety of reasons account for overweight and a jo-jo effect following a diet. The body reacts to weight loss due to famine or diet with defence mechanisms such as increased hunger and reduced energy consume.This makes weight-reduction and to keep it down so difficult,
The studies clearly state that overweight is not bound to a genetic code, what is settled is the individual energy output. Seven strategies are recommended:

1 - Stay mobile

Sport and mobility during work reduces the risk of overweight. The main goal of sport and mobility is to keep, or build muscle mass. Walking, swimming or biking are recommended by the authors.

2 - Never say "never"

Trying to avoid everything brings frustration the moment you make a small error. You may have a nice fatty dinner as long you compensate it the next day with vegetables or you insert an extra sport session.

3 - Don't loose the rhythm

Eat always at the same time. Take your time for your meals. Do not eat in a hurry. Do not miss your breakfast.

4 - Control is necessary

Weigh yourself once a day or at least once a week, so you can take countermeasures as soon as your weight rises.

5 - Be stingy with fat

You can do without butter, fatty cheese, heavy sauces and fatt pork. Instead of this you can eat vegetables and fruits instead.

6 - Fresh vegetables

You can eat as much vegetables and salad. as you wish. You get enough dietary fibre and have a low calorie intake. Eat small portions of fruits spare with banana, raisins, grapes and dates.

7 - Join a weight club

You may feel strong in company of kindred spirit in a weight club. Avoid people who seduce you to eat the wrong foods.

Special nutrition


Adventists of 7 Days

Nutrition of Adventists is reduced in proteins and may chose between 3 types:
  1. Rigid vegetable nutrition (veganism)
  2. Ovo-lacto-vegetable nutrition (approximately 50% of adventists follow this nutrition)
  3. Conventional nutrition low in meat, avoiding completely the intake of pork and his derivatives, molluscs and blood.
    Every meal should have many grains of cereals, fruits and vegetables. Strong spices are avoided,
    Old cheese and spicy cheese such as roquefort as well as alcoholic beverages or caffeine are not allowed.
    There are only three meals each day without any coffee break.
It is interesting that there is a smaller number of cancer of adventists and Mormons as found in other groups. There is no doubt that the different nutrition of adventists and Mormons is one important factor of lower cancer rate.


Batiste

They have moderate meals and negation of alcohol.


Buddhists

Nutrition generally veganic, no bulb vegetables are eaten(onions, garlic etc). Ban of alcohol and caffeine.


Hare Krishnas

Vegetarian nutrition, raw meals. Veganic nutrition is seldom followed. Ban of alcohol and caffeine.


Hindus

  1. Lower castes: Mixed nutrition with little meat, sheep, lamb, goats, pork, chicken and fish. Bovine and buffalo meat are not eaten
  2. High castes (Brahmans): Lacto-vegetal nutrition with exclusion of any kind of meat and fish, often exclusion of eggs. The nutrition avoids bulb vegetables (onions, garlic and leek). Alcohol is forbidden.


Mormons

Mormons are moderate in nutrition. They eat fruits and vegetables and have a moderate consumption of meat.
Such moderate nutrition is reduced in fat, albumin, cholesterol and purines. Vitamins and dietary fibres are higher as found in normal nutrition.
Mormons and adventists have lower cancer rate as other groups. There way of life and their nutrition seems to be the reason for favorable statistics.


Jews

Jews try to avoid any kind of excesses. There are detailed rules concerning consume of meat. The animals are chosen and killed ritualistic by a butcher which is determined by the community. Bovine meat is permitted, as well as goats, lamb, poultry (excluding carnivorous birds) fish with scales and fins.
Forbidden is pork, meat of horses, camels, rodents, carrion eating animals, bird of prey, eel, octopus, Crustacea, milk and eggs of forbidden animals, blood and meat with rests of blood, fatty acids from organs such as kidneys, sciatic nerve.
Supply of meat and derivatives is made by communities.
Milk and meat are not consumed together. Milk has to be taken immediately before meals containing meat, or 5 to 6 hours after. Milk substitutes of vegetable origin have no restriction.
Milk and milk products in soups, margarine, ice cream and chocolate must always be taken in consideration.
Food containing milk are to be kept and handled separated from food containing meat and their derivatives. This refers also to utensils such as pots, knifes, forks and spoons, plates, napkin have to be used only for one type of food. Dish washing of both types of food must be separately.
Fish, eggs and vegetable food can be consumed together with meat. There is no restriction.
During Passah (the Jewish eastern) unleavened bread is eaten.


Kosher Foods

The food scares in Europe and in US shows a great need of further food quality control through official governmental ruled authorities.
Industry and retail service are engaged in a catastrophic price war in the struggle for might and power. That is why the level of assessment between good and evil in the practice of business world is being lowered and gives chances to outlaw practices in food industry.
In this struggle ethics are put aside, unfortunately also by governments such as the case of BSE meat being forced to be sold in the European Community by directives of the Commission of the European Community. It is that why US consumer starts to buy kosher foods in the hope to get food produced under strictly controlled environmental technologies.
In US the market of kosher food is growing by over 10% each year and even over 40% of all grocery items are kosher certified in the Northeast America. Religion is not the only motivation for these customers.
Over 60 % of kosher food buyers are not Jewish. Muslims, Seventh Day Adventists, vegetarians, people with specific allergies and consumer seeking extra quality look for food labelled as kosher[130].


What is Kosher Food ?

Kosher means "fit" and is regarded as prepared in accordance with Jewish food laws.
The laws are biblical in origin coming from the five books of the Bible. Interpretation and extentions were made by rabbits in order to include new foods and new processes such as new technologies.

Slavery of desires and emancipation of animal inclinations an the role of moral laws such as kosher dietary laws

[131] Rabbi Grunfeld wrote in 1972 an essay about why Jews follow kosher dietary laws: "Holiness or self sanctification is a moral term; it is identical with moral freedom or moral autonomy. Its aim is the complete self-mastery of man."
"To the superficial observer it seems that men who do not obey the law are freer than law-abiding men because they can follow their own inclinations. In reality however, such men are subject to the most cruel bondage; they are slaves of their own instincts, impulses and desires. The first step towards emancipation from the tyranny of animal inclination in man is , therefore, a voluntary submission to the moral law. The constraint of law is the beginning of human freedom...Thus the fundamental idea of Jewish ethics, holiness, is inseparably connected with the idea of law; and the dietary laws occupy a central position in that system of moral discipline which is the basis of all Jewish laws."
"The three strongest natural instincts in man are the impulses of food, sex, and acquisition. Judaism does not aim at the destruction of these impulses but at their control and indeed their sanctification. It is the law which spiritualises their instincts and transfigures them into legitimate joys of life."


Certification of kosher food

In USA an organization makes an audit on the production line of the food which is going to be certified as kosher. Ingredients and technology is examined in order to see if it is in accordance to the Jewish law. With a contract the producer signs an obligation to avoid any change.
European certification is done by a rabbi which visits the plant. He alone decides if the product is kosher. There is no contract being made and the company can therefore change its produce after the rabbi has gone. This is a matter of ethics. A good company will maintain the rules imposed by the rabbi. Bad ethics will follow the way which is the best to it.
In London the Beth Din companyis specialized in certification of kosher food plants all over Europe.


Kosher laws

Jewish religion laws are the basis of kosher laws. It seems that the rules based on the Old Testament of the Holy Bible developed from experiences such as diseases coming from pork which was contaminated by Trichinella spiralis. Eating pork with trichinosis could cause disease thus proving that pigs were impure animals.


Kashrus

The Kashrus magazine lists foods and ingredients which are certified as kosher, as well all kosher certification agencies of the world down to single Rabbis

Kosher Status Of Mars Products

[132]
According London Beth Din Kashrut Division Announcements articles in the UK press in 2007 say that whey derived from animal rennet is contained in Masterfoods (Mars) confectionery. Whey can be a by product of cheese-making and animal rennet can be used in cheese manufacture. Since whey derived from this source contains only trace amounts of rennet, it is permitted according to halacha.

There is therefore no problem with any of the Masterfoods (Mars) products that are currently on the London Beth Din approved list.


Kosher laws

First law: Allowed animals

Allowed are mammals which chew their cud and have a split hoof. So cows are permitted. Pigs and horses are forbidden.
Birds: Chicken, ducks and goose are allowed. Ostrich and Emu are forbidden.
Fish: All fish with fins and easily removable scales ( without tearing the skin ) are allowed.
Molluscs and crustaceans: This includes shrimps lobsters and oysters are forbidden, such as lard, chitin and porcine lipase.
Ingredients: All ingredients derived from not kosher foods are forbidden. Ingredients such as gelatin, tallow or lard, chemicals derived from animal fat such as glycerol or monoglycerides are prohibited.
Emulsifiers such as used in the production of margarine containing mono and diglycerides are of great concern as their plant or animal origin are often unknown.

Second law: Animal blood

Blood is considered to be a special fluid inherent to life. Consumption is forbidden. Slaughter must be performed by a trained person in a way to eliminate the blood from the remaining meat. Slaughter must therefore follow a specific procedure.
Heat, hot water and various acids to prevent microbial contamination are forbidden at this stage of processing. Inspection of the meat must guarantee that there are no specific defects. After that the meat is soaked and salted to remove last remains of blood. The second law does not apply to fish.

Third law: Separation of dairy products from meat products and equipment used

The third law says that all kosher foods, ingredients and equipment are classified in three categories:
1.- Dairy products
2.- Meat products
3.- Pareve: Here are included all vegetable foods fish, eggs and honey. Pareve food and their ingredients must be dairy free.
People with allergies to milk and their derivates, allergies to egg proteins and vegan vegetarians welcome the third law as they can find the separation of these three categories which are not being observed by any other food laws. Pareve may contain a certain amount of milk and their derivates as it is sometimes not to be avoided. This may be tolerated for religious purposes but should be kept in mind of those who are very sensitive.

Ingredients allowed for pareve foods

Agar-agar, Carrageen, dextrose, gum arabic (Acacia), lecithin Chocolate may also contain milk and milk derivates. The technical equipment used for milk chocolate must be cleaned carefully before producing pareve chocolate. European chocolate may have up to 5% of other fats than cocoa fat. These fats can be of vegetable and of animal origin.

Fourth law: Ban of leavened products made from grains of wheat, oats, rye, barley and spelt during the Passover week

Permitted is matzo which is a specifically prepared unleavened bread, matzo meal and matzo cake flour.
Many baked products are available completely grain free giving persons with grain allergies such as coeliac disease to get foods which are free of certain allergens.

Grain-like materials

Rabbis in Europe have extended the prohibition of the grain rules to other grain-like materials such as legumes, corn, rice mustard and sesame seeds.
Sugar and corn syrup are avoided as ingredients of many products during Passover The third rule supports the theory that the deep roots of the Jewish religious laws regarding kosher foods were unconciously based on veterinary and epidemiological experiences which had summed over centuries under the classification " this is good and that is bad".

Kosher technology

The production and marketing of kosher food require: 1.- A reputable rabbinical supervision agency (or a single Rabbi in Europe) must be contacted.
2.- All ingredients are checked are included in the Kashrus. The equipment and their material must be examined to be kosher. There are restrictions on account of parts made of rubber ceramics and some plastics.
3.- All ingredients must be completely labelled on kosher food thus providing a complete information for sensitive people, whereas normal food regulation use class names and exceptions allowed to hide some of the ingredients.

Ingredients which require kosher supervision

Casein, emulsifiers fats, fatty acids, lipids and whey.


Moslems

Image Stadt5 Mosque in Kuwait city

Halaal food

Halaal food means permitted, allowed lawful or legal for Muslims. The opposite of Halaal is Haraam meaning prohibited, not allowed, unlawful, illegal. Halaal is a set of Islamic dietary laws guided by the Qur'an the Holy Book and the teachings of Allah's profet Muhammad, may peace and blessing be upon him. Nutrition of Muslims differs from one region to another. There is a strong negation of pork and his derivates, gelatine, meat of dogs, birds of prey, frogs and snails.
Killing of animals are ritually. Alcohol is forbidden. Consume of blood is not allowed. The use of animal fat in baking is forbidden. Gelatine is not allowed.
Exceptions are allowed only in emergencies.
The rules for Halaal are very similar to those of kosher foods
The most important rules for Halaal are:
1.- Meat must be slaughtered in a particular way.
2.- Only certain animal products are allowed
3.- Technological processing , like Processing aids, cleaning materials and equipment used in production must be free from prohibited food traces.
These restrictions are based on the Quran (The revealed book)and Sunna
The Islamic dietary laws which rule the production of Halaal foods is a religious matter which can be handled only by a Muslim expert. The Quran is the holy book of Muslims, being the last testament and revealed from God (Allah) as the Holly bible.

The Quran says:
Sura five ( The table) ( Al - Maida ) verse 4 to 5. "(4) It is forbidden to eat: From which has died by himself, blood and meat of swine and of that by whose slaughter another name as Allah has been invoked, and of that which has been suffocated dead by beating or which has fallen to death or which has been killed by the horns of other animals or have been killed by other wild animals, (except the animal which has been wounded by wild animal came to your hands still alive and you have finally killed it by yourself), and this what has been slaughtered in honour to wrong idols."
Other quotations are:
The Hadith (sayings of the last Prophet, Muhammad
The figh (jurisprudence) of the Muslim Jurists Hanafi, Shafii, Maliki and Hanbali.
The Muslim Food Board ( UK ) is one company which investigates and certifies Halaal foods.Heat, hot water and various acids to prevent microbial contamination are permitted.
Technology and science has deeply changed production, ingredients and packaging enhancing shelf life, food colour and texture. Global spread of exotic foods and rapid changing of nutritional habits make it important to verify the lawfulness of food in compliance with the commands of the Islam.
Muslims are allowed to eat food prepared by people who are of other beliefs ( 5:5) and Muslim food is permitted to be eaten by them, on condition that these foods are pure and permitted foods. (5:88). This permits an interchange and living together of Muslims with other groups all over the world. This is very important for the functioning of our global world.

However some precautions should be made:
'Do not eat unless Allah's name has been taken and this (not taking Allah's name) practice is transgression' (Qur'an 6:121)
The Ahlul-kitaab of today are recognized by name, less faith. There is no guarantee that they take the name of Allah/God when slaughtering an animal. Furthermore, they cannot be anymore trusted in matters pertaining to Halaal/haram. Unless there is certainty that the Ahlul-kitaab read the 'Tasmiyah' i.e. take the name of God when slaughtering an animal, only then the meat will be permissible. It was suggested that the Muslims in the U.S.A. and U.K. slaughter the animals themselves. This will make them independent from Christian/Jewish sources.
The meat sold on the market such as supermarkets should be packed, sealed and stamped by a Muslim organisation consisting of reliable scholars and Úlama who have proper Islamic knowledge of the principles pertaining to Halaal/haram.
Intoxicants, such as alcohol are forbidden because they are harmful substances.(2:219) (5:91) Consume of blood is not allowed. The use of animal fat in baking is forbidden.
Exceptions are allowed only in emergencies, such as being forced by hunger, without intention to practice sin (2:175, 5:5)
The classification of new foods and their ingredients in Halaal and haram, based on the commandments of the Qum'ran the Holy Book can only be done by an Muslim expert. The Islamic religion does not have a central religious head which dictates latest findings but some authorities are accepted in their leadership, such as the mufti of the Al Azhar University of Cairo. Due to different translations of the Koran the local interpretation of its content differs from country to country.
Some experts which can classify food as Halaal or haaram are: halalexplorer.com; muslimconsumergroup.com;somalitalk.com; Joe M. Regenstein, Cornell University, USA; M. Chaudri, IFANCA International: Masood Khawaja, The Halaal Food Authority.

Haram Food List of Dubai

Dubai Municipality’s food control department published a list of Haram foods for travellers to non-Islamic countries.

The Haram food list of Dubai Municipality’s food control department 2011

Pork

Alkohol

Burgundy, Whiskey, Gin, Scotch, Beer, Rum, Bordeaux, Malt, Liqueur, Vodka, Mescal, Marc, Maraschino, Alcohol, Vin rouge, Vin blanc.


Haram ingredients

Any product or by-product (including any product used temporarily as a substitute) which contains any one or more of haram products in however minute quantity, whether as an ingredient or sub-ingredient or as a processing aid or as a releasing agent or as a glazing agent or as an additive or as a colour or in any other form, is haram.

HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -A-          
Acacia gum E414 Ammonium carrageenan   Antioxidants (BHA and BHT)  
Acetic acid   Ammonium chloride   Arachidonic acids  
Adipic acid (acidulant) E355 Ammonium sulfate   Artificial colour  
Agar E406 Amylase   Ascorbic acid E300  
Algin/calcium alginat E404 Amylose   Aspartame  


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -B-          
Baking soda   BHT Butylated hydroxytoluene E321 Sparrow, emu  
Benzoate of soda E211 Bird, exclude bird of prey   Ostrich  
Benzoic acid E210 Chicken, duck, turkey, goose   Butyric acid  
BHA Butylated Hydroxyyanisole E320 Pigeon, dove, partridge, quail      


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -C-          
Calciferol (Vitamin D3)   Calcium sorbate E203 casein  
Calcium acid phosphate   Carbohydrates (natural)   Cellulose E460  
Calcium carrageenan   CMC Carboxymethylcellulose E466 Cellulose gum  
Calcium disodium EDTA   Carotenoid   Cholecalciferol  
Calcium carbonate   Carrageenen E407 Choline from yeast, soy  
Calcium propionate E282 Carrot oil   corn meal,corn starch  
Calcium saccharin E954 Carrageenin E407 Corn syrup  
Calcium silicate E552 Carotene E160a Cultures,living microbes  


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -D-          
Dextrin E1499 Diglyceride (plant)   Disacharides  
Dextrose   Dipotassium phosphate      
Dicalcium phosphate   Disodium inosinate E631    


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -E-          
Erythorbic acid E315 Ergosterol   Enzyme (plant)  
Ergocalciferol          


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -F-          
Farina   Ferrous sulfate   Fructose  
Fatty acids (plant)   Fibre   Fumaric acid E297  
Ferric orthophosphate   Ficin   Fungal protease enzyme  
Ferrous gluconate E579        


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -G-          
Galactose   Glutamic acid   Glyceerol/Glycerin (plant) E422
Gallic acid   Gum acacia   Glycine, sodium salt (plant) E640
Gliadin/ Gluten   Glyceride (plant)   Guar gum E412
Glucose       Gum arabic E414


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -H-          
Hemicellulose   Honey   Hydrogenated oil  
Hormones (plant)   Horse meat (sometimes)   Hydrolysed vegetal protein  


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -I-          
Inulin   Invertase   Isopropyl citrate  
Invertase   Iodine      


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -L-          
Lactic acid (synthetic)   Lactostearia   Lecithin (soy or plant) E322
Lactose   Leavenings   Lysin  


HALAAL   INGREDIENTS -M-      
Malt   Mannitol   Monocalcium phosphate  
Malic acid E296 Mannosan   Monoglycerides (plant) E471
Malt diastase   Methionine   Monosaccharides  
Maltic acid   Methylcellulose E461 MSG (monosodium  
Maltodextrin   Methylsilicone   glutamate) E621
Maltose/ maltitol E965 Molases from Halaal source      


HALAAL
INGREDIENTS -O-
Oxalic acid


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -P-          
PABA(para-aminobenzoic   Pectin E440 Potassium bromate  
acid) from plants   Phospholipi (plant)   Potassium citrate E332
Papain   Propionate   Potassium phosphate E340
Partially hydrogenated   Propionik Acid   Potassium sorbate E202
vegetable oil   Propyl gallate   Propyl gallate E310
Pectic material   Potassium benzoate E212 Propylene glycol E1520


HALAAL
INGREDIENTS -R-
Roughage


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -S-          
Silicon dioxide E551 Sodium erythorbate E318 Stannous chloride  
Smoke flavourings   Sodium hexametaphosphate   Sucrose  
Sodium acid          
pyrophosphate E450 Sodium phosphate E339 Suet  
Sodium alginate E401 Sodium propionate E281 Sulphur dioxide E220
Sodium aluminum sulfate   Sodium propionate E281 Sweetener (natural)  
Sodium ascorbate E301 Sodium silicon aluminate   Sodium bisulfite E222
Sodium benzoate E211 Sodium sorbate E201 Sodium caseinate E469
Sodium bicarbonate E500 Sodium sulfite E221 Sorbitol E420
sodium caseinate E469 Sorbic acid E200    
Sodium citrate E331 Soybean lecithin      


HALAAL          
INGREDIENTS -T-          
Tannic acid   Tartaric acid E334 Titanium dioxide E171
Tapioca   From grape only,not from wine   Tricalcium phosphate  


HALAAL  
INGREDIENTS -V-  
Vanilla acid, Vanillin Vitamines Tablets (A, D, E, C


HALAAL
INGREDIENTS -Z-
Zinc
 


Vinegar produced from alcohol

Vinegar Fermentation is only permitted when vinegar as final product is wanted. A rest of 0,5% alcohol is permitted.

Natural alcohol content of foodstuffs

Apple juice 0,2 Vol%. According to guidelines of the German book of foodstuffs a maximum of 0,3% are allowed for apple juice. [133]
Grape juice 0,4%.The guidelines of the German book of foodstuffs allows a maximum of 1,0% of alcohol in grape juice because grapes are associated with plenty of yeasts inducing a natural fermantation.
Kefir original maximum2%
Kefir mild contains only traces of alcohol.
Kombucha 0,5%
Malt beverage maximum 0,5%
Malt bier up to 4%
Sauerkraut (choucroute) 0,5%
Vinegar from 0,2 % to 1,5%
Ripe bananas 0,6%
Rye bread (0,3 %), white bread (0,2%)

Shubhah (Mushbooh)

Shubhah or Mushbooh means "suspected" and is applied for foods or drinks from which it is not known to be Halaal or haram. Shubhah or Mushbooh foods, being doubtful foods or drinks should not be consumed.

MUSHBOOH    
INGREDIENTS    
Acetic acid ester of Mono- Alanine Animal fat
diglycerides (animal) E272a    
Beta-carotene, apocarotenal Bile salts Broth (animal)
using animal based gelatine    
Brilliant blue E133 Carcium stearoyl lactylate E482 Charcoal (animal)
Chelate Cholesterol Chymotrypsin
Citric acid ester of Mono- Cobalamine Cochineal E120
Diglycerides (animal) E272c    
Coloring extract Cures Cystein
Cystine Diglyceride (animal) Disodium guanilate
Dissodium inosinate Dripping (animal) EDTA
Enzyme (animal) Etoxylated mono-/diglyceride Fatty acids(animal)
Folic acid Glyceride (animal) Glycerol/glycerin
Glycerol stearates Glycogen Gum traganth E413
Histamine Hormones (animal) Hydrolysed animal protein
Inositol Insulin Keratin
     
Lactic acid ester of Mono- Lactose made from whey Lipids
diglyceride (animal) E272 which is produced from  
  animal rennet  
     
Monoglycerides (animal) Monopotassium tartarate E336i Niacin
  (tartar Cream) from wine  
     
Oleic acid Oxysterin Para amino benzoic acid
Pepsin (animal) Phenyl alanine Phospholipid (animal)
Phosphoric acid E338 Polysacharides-glycogen Polysorbate 60 E435
     
Polysorbate 80 E433 Polyunsaturated (animal) Propylene glycol
    alginate E405
     
Propylene glycol monostearate Quinoline yellow E104 Renin/rennet (unless it is
  if animal glycerol is use of plant/microbial/synthetic
    origin)
     
Riboflavin Rum flavour Saccharine E954
Shortening(animal) Sodium lauryl sulfate Sodium stearate(animal)
Sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate E481 Sorbitan monostearate E491 Sodium nitrate E251
Sweetener-Aspartame Sweentener-Cyclamate Sweetener-Saccharine
Stearate Stearic acid Sunset yellow E110
     
Sucroglycerides E474 Tartaric acid E 334 Tartaric acid ester of Mono-
  from wine diglycerides (animal) E272d
     
Tartazine E102 Thiamin Tonic
Trypsin    




HARAM    
INGREDIENTS    
Alcohol Animal fat Alcoholic beverages
Animal shortening Bacon (pork) Boar
Carmin E120 CochinealCollagen (pork)  
     
Carnivorous animal (Lion,tiger, Cider (alcohol) Cocaine
cheetah, dog, cat)    
     
Codeine Fermented malt Gelatin
Lipase(animal origin) Kosher gelatin l-cysteine (if from human hair)
Monkey Pepsin (Hog) Pork
Rennet Sodium nitrite E250 Uric acid
Snakes Tallow Vanilla extract (alcohol)
     
Wine Whey (unless the rennet  
  used is plant/microbial/  
  synthetic  

The consumer does not understand the meaning of Halal and Kosher foods.

[134] [135]
According to a reports from Packaged Facts and from Mintel the majority of American consumers buy kosher and/or halal foods foods expecting higher quality and safety, compared with normal foods. They are not motivated by religious or ethnic reasons. The reports stress that these products present best marketing conditions exploring the kosher or the halal certification label inducing safety image. This may be deceiving for the consumer.

The big run on organic foods and Halal foods by EU supermarkets

[136]
The run on the organic foods (Biofoods) initiated a heavy lobbying on EU legislation ruling this group of foods. The standards were alleviated to enable mass production, use of non-organic ingredients and airfreight, all of what is not accepted by original organic farmers.

The marketing power of the big retailers were keen to establish organic departments, which boosted sales figures to levels beyond the capability of sustainable farms. Heavy carbon footprints result from transportation which did not correlate with the initial ideal of organic food.

It is laudable that food industry, such as Haribo and retailers launched Gummi Bears candy in Germany with bovine gelatine excluding pork. Here again question arises about alleviation of standards to make it feasible for food industry. Were all animals from which gelatine derived slaughtered following Muslim rules? Other foods with Halal label are extremely complicated when enclosed in industrial management.

According to Mahmoud Tatari of the European halal control and certification authority in Ruesselsheim, there are about 400 companies in Germany offering halal products on a market of 4 to 5 billion Euros disputed by food giants like Nestlé, Langnese, Elb-Milch, Pfanni, Gruenland and Ehrmann, together with pharmaceuticals firms Bayer, BASF and Merck. The largest halal markets are in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Middle East, Germany, France and Britain. Nestlé makes more money on halal products than on organic products, making 5 per cent of its revenue last year with halal products, such as drinks, dairy products and chocolate and has more than 300 halal products.

Mahamoud Tatari calls on a principal of Islam: "everything that is fair, correct and good for humans" may be certified such as financial services offered by banks and even telephone cards which comply with Muslim precepts may bear the halal label.

Such thinking is being questioned as it transforms the culture and the believes which survived over centuries by incorporating them into the machinery of global business opening doors for alleviating the halal rules, so as happened with organic foods which now differs from its origin.

Understanding Kosher and Halal Food

[137]
Both ethnic foods do not mean that safety or quality is better than normal foods. They differ from western food because they are manufactured according to religious believes. Their principles are not based on science, but on rules found in the Holy Bible and in the Holy Quran.

- Ritual slaughter by cutting the throat of the animal.
- Negation of pork.
- Kosher foods forbid mixing dairy products and meat.
- Alcohol is strictly forbidden for Halal, and vanilla is not allowed because it may be produced using alcohol extraction. Some liquor and wine are kosher if made only by Jews. - Gelatine is forbidden because it may come from pork.

Certification of Kosher and Halal food: Certification can be made by private entities and varies according to the religious expert who emits the label. In some cases HACCP enquiries are added to the certification procedure, but this is not an essential part of the meaning of Halal or Kosher. Complying with HACCP standards and hygiene requirements are demanded by food regulation such as the Article 21. FDA and every food must comply with them and is not a speciality of ethnic food.

Muslims say Walkers Crisps Muslims are not Halaal

[138]
UK Muslims are upset on Walkers crisps containing traces of alcohol. The Muslim Council of Britain says that consuming food with alcohol in it is not permitted by the Muslim faith. Walkers should make ingredients such as alcohol clear on the packaging. Walkers have stated that only a minimal amount of alcohol is used in some products to extract flavour added to the crisps.

The food industry, however should select flavourings which were extracted by other methods as using alcohol. Such methods are for instance, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. This is a way to keep the list of ingredients small and satisfy all consumers.

Flavour containing alcohol as a solvent

[139]
According to Halapreneur some Islamic Scholars considered a non Halal food product if it is made with flavour containing alcohol as a solvent. But the others considered it Halal because they said the small or large quantity of the product does not intoxicate a person.

According to Masood Khawaja, of the Halal Food Authority labelling issues and alcohol flavouring had been raised with Walkers before. He says that the company should have solved it instead of hiding behind labelling regulations, because it does not matter what percentage of alcohol is involved. Snacks that are likely to be boycotted by Muslims are Sensations Thai Sweet Chilli, Doritos Chilli Heat Wave and Quavers Cheese.

Ritual slaughter

The Sunna describes the ritual slaughter. All animals should be slaughtered according to this Islamic ritual with exception to animals shot during hunting. Ritual slaughter should be done invoking the name of Allah and cutting the throat, artery and gullet with one stroke of a sharp knife. The animal must be alive at the moment of slaughter in order to allow total bleeding because consumption of blood is forbidden.
Blood is therefore used as meal for animal feeding or dried together with the content of stomach and intestines as agriculture fertilizer.(Buckenhüskes et al.,1996][140] In Germany the Islamic ritual slaughter is not allowed (BVerwG,Urt from 15.06.1995-BVerwG 3 C 31.93 German resolution against ritual slaughter without stunning). According German veterinary rules animals have to be made unconscious before bleeding. The University Al Azhar of Cairo has accepted stunning with electro shocks.This however is not according to the opinion of the majority of Moslems which consider such slaughter as haraam. [140]

Animal slaughter research

At the University of Hanover, Germany Professor Schultz and Dr. Hazim used Electroencephalograph (EEG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) to compare the pain caused by Islamic slaughter and western method using captive bolt stunning.
According to both scientists the Halaal method caused no change in the graph of the EEG the first 3 minutes after cutting the throat of the animal according to Islamic ritual. The next tree minutes showed a condition of deep sleep, followed by a zero level.The heart was still pumping and convulsion of the animal due to a reflex of the spinal cord driving maximum quantity of blood out of the body.
Islamic slaughter was therefore classified as humane and hygienic method.
Western method by captive bolting stunning showed in the graph of the EEG signs of severe pain. The heart stopped beating retaining much blood in the body.
The western method was therefore classified by the authors as unhumane and unhygienic for the consumer because of increased amount of blood being retained in meat. [141]

The shock overlays pain says a German veterinarian

[142]
According to the German veterinary Dr. Wolfgang Lutz in 2002 islamic slaughter, without stunning, can be tolerated if it is performed professionally Dr. Lutz is a referee for meat hygiene at the German Butcher's association (Deutschen Fleischerverband (DFV)). His opinion followed a verdict of the constitutional court of Germany which was criticised by animal welfarist.

The judges from Karlsruhe ruled that German authorities may not as a general rule deny permission to Muslim butchers to perform ritual slaughter. The spokesman of the association DFV Christoph Silber-Bonz said "according to our perception professional slaughter cannot get along without stunning. We, however, recognise that there are religious communities and cultural circles, which have other traditions." he added that it was not up to his association to evaluate this.

Dr. Lutz stressed that the German animal welfare act provides the exceptions which include religious reasons. The constitutional court had to clear that a petitioner could be included in the exception. The judges ruled as yes, and nothing else did happen in 2002. Referring to the uncertainty about the question of the animal having pain Dr. Lutz stated: "If the butcher knows what he does, if he slaughters accordingly to the rule, I believe that the pain at slaughter will be overlayed by the shock. "

Physiologic reactions during the slaughter of cattle and sheep with and without stunning

[143]
Kallweit and colleagues 1989 report two trials concerning reaction during slaughter of cattle and sheep:

The first trial tested the cortical activity of cattle and sheep using electrocorticogram (EcoG). Stunned animals had a shorter phase until the ECoG disappearsafter sticking, but had a prolonged time until disappearance of the EcoG signals between stunning and the cervical state. However, this could not be statistically confirmed, and the authors concluded that the different slaughter methods could be regarded equivalent.

The second trial with adult cattle included an extended ECoG and measuring visually and somatosensorically evoked potentials.

Captive-bolt stunning resulted in shorter intervals until disappearance of cortical activities, and variance was much lower compared with ritual slaughter.

The authors stress that after captivebolt stunning absolutely no evoked potentials could be registrated, whereas these potentials lasted for 77 seconds (somatosensorically evoked potentials) and 55 seconds respectively (visually evoked potentials) after the ritual slaughter cut. A nervous conduction was measured up to 126 seconds in the extreme cases after ritual slaughter.

The authors wrote that their results do not permit the conclusion whether or not pain sensitivity occurred in the animals.

Animal welfare slaughter regulation

[144]
The animal welfare regulation on the slaughter of animals, existing only as a draft for the time being, is designed not only to transpose EC-legislation into national law but also to update and strengthen preconstitutional national legislation on this matter. For a wide area related to the slaughter or killing of animals, animal welfare requirements are put in concrete terms. Among the topics belonging to this area are the theoretical and practical knowledge of the personnel, the handling of animals before slaughter or killing, stunning, the control of its efficacy and the permessibility of certain stunning or killing methods. Not only livestock but also, for example, fur animals and fish are concerned. In practice it will take some efforts in order to attain compliance with the provisions of the animal welfare slaughter regulation.

Status of law-making on animal welfare

[145] The Commission has introduced a directly operative animal welfare legislation by adopting EC Regulation 1/2005 [146] on the protection of animals during transport. Since the first animal welfare conference of the International Office of epizootics (OlE) in February 2004 in Paris, two very comprehensive codes on slaughter of animals and on animal transport were adopted.

Ritual slaughter in Brazil is found to be painful

[147]
Roberto de Oliveira Roca 2002 cites the problem with the Jewish ritual of cattle slaughter in Brazil is the restraint system, which is not efficient, and does not takes into consideration that most of the cattle is Zebu, which is more excitable than European cattle. According to Oliveira Roca the restraint and crude throat-cutting cause severe stress in the animals slaughtered by the Kasher method. This is evident observing the reactions of the animal, which show front leg flexure and contraction of the muscles of the face soon after throat cutting and hoisting, animals.

For humane and safety reasons, slaughter plants performing Jewish slaughter must have modern equipment for vertical restraint. The practice of hoisting live cattle or sheep must be eliminated. Roca points to schemes and restraint equipment which are recommended by the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) .

Recommended restraint cabinet: The apparatus consists of a narrow cabinet with a front opening for the animal's head. After the animal enter the cabinet, a gate pushed it forward and an abdominal lifter is placed under the chest. The head is restrained by a face lifter, so the rabbi can cut the throat. The movement of the abdominal lifter must be restricted to 70 cm so that the animal is not lifted from the floor. The gate pushing the rear must be equipped with a separate pressure regulator, allowing the operator to regulate the pressure on the animal.

Ritual slaughter

The most important rules for Halal foods are:
1.- Meat must be slaughtered in a particular way. Zibah
2.- Only certain animal products are allowed.
3.- Technological processing , like processing aids, cleaning materials and equipment used in production must be free from prohibited food traces.
The Islamic dietary laws which rule the production of foods is a religious matter which can be handled only by a Muslim expert.
Animals should be slaughtered according to Islam ritual. Exceptions: animals shot during hunting and regulations for wild life.

Rules for ritual slaughter
-Licensed Muslim slaughterer should slaughter invocating the name of Allah.
-The animal must be alive and healthy at the moment of slaughter.
- Animal skin or fur or feathers must be clean prior to slaughter, free of faeces, mud or other unhygienic substances
-Cut the throat, jugular vein, carotid artery and gullet with one stroke without damage of the the spinal cord stunning is not permitted
- Flowing blood drain out by natural convulsion

The major concern during ritual slaughter are the stressful and cruel methods of restraint (holding) used in some plants such as hanging live animals upside down. Devices to hold the animal in a comfortable, upright position should be used.

Mechanical slaughter

Mechanical transportation but manual slaughter

Chickens are transported to the place of slaughter through a conveyer belt and are manually slaughtered. If there is certainty that the chicken is alive and the Muslim slaughterer recites the name of Allah upon slaughtering, then the chicken is Halal. In this case, only the transportation is mechanical but the slaughtering is manual. This procedure is unanimously permissible and recommended.

Mechanical transportation and slaughter

Chickens are transported by means of the conveyer belt to the mechanical slaughter blade. Once the mechanical plant comes into operation, the blade also comes into operation and cuts the chicken. This procedure is not permissible.


Stunning

Austria

Muslims must stun prior to slaughter. Exemption in some areas for Jews.

Belgium

Muslims must stun prior to slaughter. Exemption in some areas for Jews.

Denmark

Exemption for Jewish slaughter, but have to stun cattle after the throat is cut. Muslims stun cattle with captive bolt pistol. Lambs, goats and poultry do not have to be stunned.

Finland

Animals must be stunned immediately after they have been cut.

France

Exemption from stunning

Germany

The Islamic ritual slaughter is not allowed (BVerwG,Urt from 15.06.1995-BVerwG 3 C 31.93 German resolution against ritual slaughter without stunning). According German veterinary rules animals have to be made unconscious before bleeding. Religiously slaughtered meat is only for consumption by local communities and cannot be exported.

Greece, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal and USA

Exemption from stunning.

Spain

All animals except goats and sheep have to be stunned before their throats are cut.

Sweden

l992 decision by the Swedish Board of Agriculture to uphold its ban on slaughter without stunning.

Norway

All animals must be stunned prior to slaughter.

Egypt

The University Al Azhar of Cairo has accepted stunning with electro shocks. This, however, is not in accordance with the opinion of the majority of Moslems which consider such slaughter as haram.

European Union

The Council Directive 93/119/EEC lays down the standards for killing animals. It states that "on animal welfare grounds, stunning methods should render animals unconscious until death supervenes through bleeding."

United Kingdom

In the UK specifically, the law is laid down in (The Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Regulations 1995).
All mainstream slaughter is supposed to involve stunning the animals before their throat is cut. The methods used are as follows with the main concerns as stated by the Scientific Veterinary Committee of the EU :These rules apply to all mainstream slaughter. In fact animals have had to be stunned before slaughter in the UK since 1919. Religious or ritual slaughter is exempt.

When the cut is done correctly, the animal appears not to feel it. There are a lot of publications which underpin this affirmation and refuse the arguments of FAWC.

Switzerland

Religious slaughter is forbidden on conscious animals (except poultry).

Denmark

Muslims accept the stunning of cattle with the captive bolt pistol.

Finland

Religious slaughter is only permitted if the animals are stunned immediately after they have been cut.

New Zealand

is the world's largest exporter of halal-slaughtered sheep meat. All sheep are given a head-only electrical stun. In promotional literature, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board says that, "the slaughter methods adopted have been favourably commented on by delegations from the Islamic Republic of Iran, Malaysia, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Egypt, Syria and Jordan."

Mechanical Methods of stunning in mainstream slaughter

Captive bolt

This stunning method is widely used for all farm animals and rabbits. Gun powder (cartridge), compressed air and spring under tension drive bolts through the skull of animals.

Main EU concerns: in approx. 10% of cattle the bolt is not applied correctly; animals remain conscious or regain consciousness because the bolt is not applied at the right part of the head; unsuitable cartridges used.

Concussion stunning

A mechanically operated instrument delivers a blow to the brain and concusses the brain. Used for cattle, sheep, calves, rabbits.

Main EU concerns

"The prevalence of miss-stuns under abattoir conditions is a major concern." Animals are not stunned properly and so are often fully conscious when their throat is cut.

Free bullets

Used for animals difficult to handle such as wild pigs, bison, deer, horses or in emergencies. Main EU concerns: Shooting in the chest or neck causes severe pain and distress (animals are supposed to be shot in the head); wrong strength of bullet used for a particular species.

Gas stunning

Carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide is used to stun pigs in the UK and other EU countries. Pigs exposed to 90% CO2 die within approx. 5 minutes, but times vary and can be significantly longer.

Carbon dioxide and argon

This gas mixture is used for stun/kill chickens and turkeys.

Electrical stunning

Head-only stunning

An electric current is applied to the head which is supposed to cause temporary loss of consciousness.

Cardiac arrest stunning

An electric current is either sent through the head and body at the same time to span the brain and heart or is sent though the head first and then across the chest.

Proper positioning of electrodes in Electrical stunning

[148]
Blackmore and Petersen 1981 studied the effects of electrical stunning and slaughter in New Zealand sheep and calves.

The authors stressed that electrical stunning must induce cardiac dysfunction to avoid that sheep and lambs regain sensibility during slaughter. Both "head-to-back"and "head-to-leg" methods produces cardiac inhibition. It is important that electrodes are properly positioned and sufficient electrical current is applied, bacuse increase petechial haemorrhages in the fat of lamb carcases were noted in "head-to-leg" stunned animals when the forelegs were not in contact with the leg electrode.

Waterbath stunning

Used for poultry. Birds are shackled upside down on a moving conveyor which carries them to an electrified water bath into which their heads are supposed to be immersed.

The Law

Muslims interpret these commands differently. Some say that regarding:

Gassing strangulation

Are considered as cruel and unlawful in Islam, therefore chemical gassing should not be used as a stunning method.

Concussion

Animals that die from a violent blow - that although this rule was intended to stop animals being killed by a stick etc., some Muslims argue that today it means that electrical stunning and the bolt pistol should not be used.

Captive bolt pistol, water bath

Animals that die from a fall - some Muslims have interpreted this command to mean that if an animal has died from concussion or drowning (as a cow falling in a well would be killed by drowning) it is forbidden. Therefore, they say, the captive bolt pistol or concussion stunner should not be used as it may cause the animal to die from concussion and killing chickens in electrified water baths may be unlawful as it causes death "partly by drowning"

Legal or not legal: Electrical stunning, Islam experts interpretation

Dr Abdel Aziz El Khayat, Dean of the Faculty of Islamic Law, University of Jordan

Some say it is legal so long as the animal is still alive when slaughtered and so long as the motive is to ease suffering and quicken the process; others say it is forbidden because the shock can cause pain; quickens decay of the flesh; causes haemorrhaging so diseases can't be checked for and may kill the animal outright.

Van de Wals and Warrinton

All stunning methods trigger a massive secretion of epinephrine.

New Zealand and Australia

New Zealand has developed an electrical stunning apparatus that met a Muslim standard. Head-only electric stunning prior to Muslim slaughter is used in almost all sheep slaughter plants in New Zealand and Australia.

Dr Ahmad Sakr, expert on Halal certification in USA

He says it is not Halal because of the effect electric shock has on blood drainage. Using electric shock means that all of the animal's blood does not leave its body, because electric shock affects the central nervous system.

Captive bolt stunning, Islam experts interpretation

Sheikh Aboul Yusr Abdin former Syrian Mufti

Many Muslims do believe (and many do not!) that stunning is permitted so long as the animal is killed by cutting the throat. It is more acceptable to stun cows to speed up throughput but much less so to stun smaller animals which are easier to handle.

Dr Abdel Aziz El Khayat

He says that most Muslims allow the captive bolt.

Australia, New Zealand and Ireland

Non-penetrating concussion stunning prior to slaughter has received approval from some Muslim authorities.

The Talmud

The Talmud contains an entire section on slaughter and the subsequent inspection of animals to ensure that they are religiously "clean". The text includes detailed anatomical information what is to be done during slaughter and the subsequent post-mortem inspection.

The Jewish religious codes require that allowed animals be slaughtered by a specially trained Jewish male called "shochet" using a special knife, called the "chalef".

While the Muslims allow any believing Muslim man or women, to slaughter allowed animals.

Halal slaughter of animals and birds in abattoirs

The abattoir or factory must be under the close and constant supervision of a Halal Certifier. The premises, machinery and equipment must be cleansed according to Islamic Sharia (law) before any production takes place.
The slaughterer must be a mature and pious Muslim of sound mind who understands fully the fundamentals and conditions relating to Halal slaughter and be approved by the religious authorities. Only acceptable live animals and birds can be slaughtered.

The slaughter must be done manually using a stainless steel knife.
Facilities must be available for rinsing the knife after each kill.
The slaughterer must sever the respiratory tract, oesophagus and jugular vein.
The animal must be completely dead before skinning takes place.
Only Halal animals and birds are Halal Slaughtered.

GCC Standard for islamic slaughter regulation for meat and poultry 2004

[149]
The Governments of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates adopted this standard. The authors of the article stress, however, that the standard should not be confused with the regulations of the "Halal" certificate. Please read the Standard at: http://www.thepoultrysite.com/articles/186/

Halal slaughter in UK

[150]
London's Halal Food Authority says animals have to be fed as normal and given water prior to slaughter and one animal must not see the other being killed. The authority also says the "knife should be four times the size of the neck and razor sharp, and as far as possible the slaughterer and the animal should face Qibla or Mecca." The organisation does not ban animals from being stunned before their throats are slit, but the UK's Halal Monitoring Committee insists that slaughter must take place without stunning the animals.

Halal labelling in UK

[151]
Halal and kosher meat should be labelled when it is put on sale so the public can decide whether they want to buy food from animals that have bled to death, the Food and Farming minister Lord Rooker says. His office will enforce the negotiations to introduce a European-wide labelling system by 2010.

Halal slaughter in Germany

[152]
Germany grantes Muslim butchers an exceptional permission for ritual slaughter. (English version)
http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen/rs20020115_1bvr178399en.html

Animal welfare at ritual slaughter in Germany, Berlin Meeting 2005

[153]
Please see also the Meeting in Berlin 2005. There are some very interesting comments which are worth reading. The English part starts at page 61.
http://www.erna-graff-stiftung.de/cms/download/tierschutz_bei_der_rituellen_schlachtung.pdf

EU labelling proposal for shechita (religious slaughter) will impact on the kosher meat industry

[154]
In some religious practices such as Jewish (Shechita) and Muslim (Halal) slaughter, animals must be killed without stunning. New regulations voted by the European Parliament could mean that animal slaughtered in compliance with either Islamic or Jewish regulations would receive distinct labelling from animals not killed through religious slaughter.

The European Parliament recently voted on an amendment to an EU Regulation which will require meat products derived from animals that have been slaughtered by shechita, to be labelled as "meat from slaughter without stunning". This would significantly impact on the kosher meat industry in the UK and across Europe, imperilling its economic viability.

Requiring Kosher meat to be labelled but not meat from animals which have been gassed, shot at, electrocuted or worse is quite simply, discrimination.

Shechita UK has in place a professionally managed A lobbying campaign of the European Governments by Shechita UK Website and promotes a mailing campaign to UK MEPs to avoid such labelling

The amendment, proposed by German Christian Democratic Union MEP, Renate Sommer, passed 326-270 with 68 abstentions. Whilst Shechitah - animal killed according to Jewish law - is not pre-stunned, there is variation within the Islamic community, with several abattoirs pre-stunning animals, albeit using a significantly lower voltage to that of non religious slaughter.

The muslim reaction to the labelling proposal to religious slaughter

[155]
Muslim MEPs see the new regulation to be discriminatory since only animals which are killed for meat using the Halal or Shechita method would require a special label when sold to consumers or sold onto the processed meat industry, while animals which are shot, gassed or stunned would not be labelled as such.

The Halal Monitoring Committee (HMC), also condemns the labelling of non-stunned slaughtered foods as "discriminatory".

However, the Halal Food Authority, who pre-stun animals before slaughter, supported the amendment, favouring the labelling of meat, poultry and other food stuffs not only to verify a halal status but also for the use of human consumption: to ensure the quality of food, hygiene and origin of country, and welcomes a distinction to be made when labelling halal meat which may or may not be pre-stunned.

The proposed measures can only be implemented if supported by all 27 EU Agricultural Ministers, later this year. All forms of religious slaughter are banned in Switzerland, Sweden, Norway and Iceland. [156]

The Directive 93/119/EC lays down certain requirements for the protection of animals at the time of slaughter and killing. Ritual slaughter must comply with this Directive and other Community public health, animal health and welfare requirements. [157]

A report of the EFSA states that there is a high risk that animals feel extreme pain during the cutting of the throat. The Report adds (p. 22) that during the period when the animal, whose throat has been cut, is still conscious, serious welfare problems are highly likely to occur since the animal can feel anxiety, pain, distress and other suffering.

Without stunning, the time between cutting through the major blood vessels and insensibility, as deduced from behavioural and brain response, is up to 20 seconds in sheep, up to 25 seconds in pigs, up to 2 minutes in cattle, up to 150 seconds or more in poultry, and sometimes 15 minutes or more in fish. [157]

Religious slaughter controversy

[158]
The issue was raised by animal protection organisations such as Compassion in World Farming (CIWF) who requested that slaughter without prior stunning should be stopped. The Federation of Veterinarians of Europe (FVE) also considered it an unacceptable practice. The European Livestock and Meat Trading Union (UECBV) supported the actual status quo and considered that a good decision on religious practices should be taken only at a political level as, if it is carried out in an abattoir, performed by trained personal and mechanical restraining always applied (cattle and sheep), it does not pose any particular problem from an animal welfare point of view. UECBV underlined its wish to avoid any discrimination between Halal and/or Kosher meat because any interdiction might be translated in possibilities to fuel illegal slaughter already existing in some Countries. Animal Attitude (AA) also mentioned the problem of meat from animals slaughtered without stunning entering in the normal channel of distribution (i.e. non-labelled as religiously slaughtered meat) and considered that such practice did not allow consumers to be properly informed.

The National Secular Society submitted a paper to Defra on the 20. April 2009 regarding the Consultation on the proposal for a Council regulation on the protection of animals at the time of killing. The paper stresses that "in kosher meat production, the meat from the hindquarters and any deemed unfit is rejected. As a result, to get sufficient meat to satisfy the demand, a larger numbers of animals are slaughtered without pre-stunning than would be necessary if all carcases, and the entire carcase were acceptable. The consumption of certain parts of the animals' hindquarters such as veins, lymphatic and sciatic nerve and its branches, is forbidden under Jewish law. To remove them is a specialised task and one which has not been practised in the UK since the 1930's. Consequently, all hindquarters are rejected as not Kosher, as are any carcasses which cannot be consumed as Kosher meat for other reasons (for example, damage to the carcass). A high proportion of the meat which is declared non-Kosher is therefore sold on the open market but is not labelled as meat from animals that have been slaughtered without pre-stunning." [159]

Halal and Kosher slaughter according to FAO

[160]
Guidelines for Humane Handling, Transport and Slaughter of Livestoc: Religious or ritual slaughter (Halal and Kosher).
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6909E/x6909e00.HTM

Halal slaughter in Thailand

[161]
Notification of the National Committee on Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards Subject: The Agricultural Commodity and Food Standard: Halal Food B.E.2550 (2007)
http://www.halal.or.th/uploadfiles/std_halal_food%20Eng.pdf

Evaluation of religious slaughter

Evaluation of religious slaughter is being done on three basic fields: - Stressfulness of restraint methods. - Pain perception during the incision. - Latency of onset of complete insensibility.

Restraint

Europe

The casting pen inverts cattle onto their backs, being more stressful than upright restraint devices. Cattle resist inversion and twist their necks in an attempt to right their heads.

Weinberg casting pen

It is very stressful

Facomia pen

It is less stressful than Weinberg pen but upright restraint would be better.

US

poorly designed upright restraint boxes apply excessive pressure to the thoracic and neck areas of cattle.

Time to lose consciousness

Sheep and goats

2 to 15 seconds

Cattle

immediately to 30 seconds. Calm cattle will usually collapse within 10 to 15 seconds.

Upright restraint

Good upright restraint equipment is available for low stress, comfortable restraint of sheep, calves and cattle

According to Grandin excessive bending of the neck,should be avoided. For that, the bovine's forehead should be parallel to the floor. This positions the throat properly for ritual slaughter and stretches the neck skin minimizing discomfort.

A relaxed, calm animal has improved bleedout and a rapid onset of unconsciousness. Excited animals are more likely to have a slower bleedout. The use of a comfortable upright restraint device would be advantageous from a religious standpoint because rapid bleedout and maximum loss of blood.

Welfare aspects of slaughter

Many welfare concerns are centred on restraint, driven by their concerns about forceful immobilisation and clamping of cattle. Proper design and operation of restraint devices can alleviate most of these concerns with cattle and sheep.
Restraint devices are used for holding animals both for ritual slaughter and for conventional slaughter where animals are stunned. The use of a head restraint will improve the accuracy of captive bolt stunning. In large beef slaughter plants without head restraint captive bolt stunning has a failure rate of 3 to 5, a second shot is required.

Technological processing

Slaughter by machines

Several supermarket chains have sold chicken slaughtered by machines with Halal labelling. Consumers do not agree with that.

Product change on line

Changing between different products of the same category with meat and vegetarian products on a same line is cost intensive with regard to loss of product and off-production time cleaning and disinfection. Changing product without cleaning is practised in actual food industry.

However, changing from meat product to a vegetarian one, haram meat and animal fat can contaminate this product


Ramadan, the fast-month

Consumption of food and beverages during daytime. There is only one meal right after sunset and one meal before sunrise. This rule is very difficult to be followed by hard workers, persons exposed to high temperatures and travelers.

Halaal (lawful) food product definition

The Muslim Food Board (U.K.) [140] gives the following definition of food for Moslems [140]:
Halaal food is defined as any food product that is free from all of the following:
Any product or by-product derived from:
a) Pig
b) Blood
c) Carnivorous animals (except fish]
d) Reptiles and insects
e) Any marine animals except fish
f) The bodies of dead animals
g) The bodies of Halaal animals (i.e. Buffalo, Cow, Sheep, Lamb, Goat, Deer, Rabbit, Chicken etc.) which are not slaughtered according to the Islamic Law.
h) Wine,Ethyl Alcohol or Spirits, where these remain in their original chemical form.
Vinegar, produced from alcohol.

Fermentation is only permitted when vinegar as final product is wanted. A rest of 0,5% alcohol in the vinegar is permitted. A natural content of alcohol in fruit juices is tolerated even by deep religious people [140].

Any product or by-product (including any product used temporarily as a substitute] which contains any one or more of the above products in however minute quantity, whether as an ingredient or sub-ingredient or as a processing aid or as a releasing agent or as a glazing agent or as an additive or as a color or in any other form, is Haraam (unlawful) for Muslims.
Some examples of Halaal food products are as follow:
1. Milk (Cow, Sheep and Goats)
2. Honey
3. Eggs
4. Fish
5. Edible plants (including sea plants), which are not intoxicant
6. Edible fresh or naturally frozen vegetables
7. Edible fresh or dried fruits
8. Edible nuts like peanuts,cashew nuts, hazel nuts, Walnuts etc.
9. Edible grains such as wheat, rice, rye, barley, oats etc.
10.Edible condiments such as cardamom, clove, sage leaves, turmeric, chilli, curcumin etc.

Some common examples of Haraam (unlawful,forbidden) food products are as follows:

1. Bone stocks or animal fats (e.g.: Lard, suet, dripping, gelatine, aspic, glycerol, stearates, stearic acid, proteins, amino acids, bone, charcoal, pepsin, animal renet etc. )
At the beginning of 1998 the Al Azhar University of Cairo redefined gelatine as Halaal. According to the University of Cairo is gelatine a food ingredient which is so strongly hydrolysed that there is no connection left with the original pig. This new point of view is official granted but not everywhere accepted by all Moslems. The industrial use of gelatine should therefore be avoided.
The Islamic religion does not have a central religious head which dictates latest findings but some authorities are accepted in their leadership, such as the mufti of the Al Azhar University of Cairo.
Due to different translations of the Koran the local interpretation of its content differs from country to country[140].

2. Any additive or color derived from animals:
E 120 Cochineal
E 104 Quinoline yellow (if glycerol is used)
E 153 Carbon black (if animal charcoal is used)
E 471 Mono and diglycerides of fatty acids (if animal products is used)

E 472 (a to e) Acetic ,lactic, citric, tartaric acid esters of mono and diglycerides of fatty acids (if animal product is used)

E 474 Sucroglycerides (if animal product is used)
E 476 Polyglycerol esters of polycondensated fatty acids of castor oil (if animal product is used)
3. Production of whey powder or whey solids using animal based rennet.
4. Lactose made from whey which is produced using animal rennet.
5. Lining of containers with animals or alcohol products as used in baking of bread, cakes etc.
6. Production of beta-carotene and apocarotenal using animal based gelatine.
7. Use of animal based glycerine as a coating for raisins or as a flower improver.
8. Vitamins A, D and beta-carotene which is protected in a matrix that do not conform to the above Halaal Food Production definition. The above are some examples of Halaal and Haraam food products,the list is by no means complete. 9.- Plants which can cause drug addiction and cause doping.[140] Not permitted foods are called Haraam. The hypothesis that certain kinds of food were forbidden because of hygienic reasons was made by Lück in 1966 and Saleh in 1972. This hypothesis is nowadays denied unanimously.It is believed that all rules have strict religious origin[140]. A food does not lose his halaal character when it proves to be allergic to a small part of the population.
Toxic foods such as containing aflatoxins are haraam because they are harmful [140]


Definition of Halaal Food according to the Codex Alimentarius second edition:Food labeling 1998(General Guidelines for use of the term "halal")

[162]
Muslim halal dietary laws are found in the Qumramand the books of Hadith ( the Traditions). Interpretation of these laws are made by Muslim scholars over the years to make an update to modern nutritional knowledge including new processes which are being used in modern technology.The basic principles of the Islamic laws should however not be altered. Because of the growing global Moslem population the committee of the Codex Alimentarius has set up rules for a global definition of Halaal Foods. According to the Codex Alimentarius are Halaal Foods those which are conforming with the Islamic laws. They do not contain anything which is forbidden by the Islamic laws. They were handled stored and free of any forbidden materials.During their production they were kept away from other food which are not conforming with Islamic laws.
The processing or storage of halaal foods is allowed in the same room where not halaal food is being processed or stored when it is absolutely sure that any contact between both foods are avoided.
It is allowed to prepare Halaal foods which equipments which have been used to prepare not halaal foods when cleaning of the equipment according to Islamic laws have been performed.


Basic foods which are Halaal according to the Codex Alimentarius

All foods are considered as Halaal with exception of specific animal origin or containing products or derivates from not law conform origin.


Haraam animal food


Haraam vegetable foods

All poisonous and dangerous plants are considered as Haraam, unless the poison or the danger is being discarded during processing.


Haraam beverages

All alcoholic beverages are haraam as well all forms of poisoning and dangerous beverages.


Haraam additives

All additives which originate from the foods cited before are considered as Haraam.


Halaal slaughter


Labeling of Halaal food according to the Codex Alimentarius

If Halaal characteristics are mentioned in relation to food the term " Halaal" should be declared on the label. Claims suggesting that Halaal foods are more nourishing or healthier than other foods should be avoided.

What is behind a brand


Halaal chocolate confectioneries

[163] Confectionery is commonly forbidden as ingredients as gelatin, enzymes and emulsifiers are considered Mashbooh because he origin of the ingredients is not known. Tesco, however wants to introduce the Ummah Foods chocolate range, being free of animal fat. "Ummah" means "the Muslim community" Ummah Foods already supplies the Halaal orange and caramel chocolate bars to Islamic bookshops, newsagents and universities in UK in 2006.

Launching his products among the Muslim population of East-London, Mr.Kahlid Sharif, director of Ummah Foods, believes that winning over the Muslim customer base, rather than targeting a broader "ethical" market, is the key to success. Mr. Sharif says "You cannot put a Muslim name on a product and not expect the core customers to be Muslim". With Tesco targeting the ethnic foods, changes this marketing strategy.


Qibla Cola

[163] The brand has a presence as far as England, Canada, Pakistan and Africa. Since Qibla is an Islamic word used to describe the direction in which Muslims face to pray, one could think that the cola is aimed at Muslims. However, according to the producer the target is everyone who wants to make a conscious decision to buy an ethical brand.


Quakers

Quakers don't have a set of rules about anything including nutrition. Their principle is moderation in all things.


Rosacrucis

Lacto-vegetable, renunciation of alcohol.
Not to be mistaken by A.M.O.R.C. Antiquus Misticus Ordae Rosae Cruzis who smoke, drink alcohol, all forms of nutrition are allowed.


Sikhs

Meat of bovines and alcohol are not allowed.

Castration of animals without anaesthesia

Young animals feel pain during castration

[164]
Yearly 20 million young boars are castrated without anaesthesia in Germany, despite painless alternatives. Farmers hold the animals at their hind legs and cut out both testicles without closing the wound which has to heal on its own. The bloody procedure aims to avoid the production of the hormone androstenone in boars giving the typical boars smell of the meat which resembles urine.

Several researchers try to determine how strong the pain is which the animals feel during the castration. The animal squeak continuously as soon they are captured. Analysing this squeaking showed that the animals, during the surgical procedure, emit longer cries which are of higher frequency than those before and after the castration.

The veterinarian Susanne Zöls from the Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich demonstrated that the concentration of the stress hormone cortisol rises significantly in the serum of the animals during castration and remains high for hours. Animal castrated under anaesthesia presented cortisol concentrations which were similar to those of animals which were only kept immobilized by their hind legs for some minutes.

Human medicine believed that newborns have not developed pain sensory structures, so pain feeling is less intense as adult people. Dr. Zöls transferred this perception to veterinary science. Meanwhile this perception is not valid any more. And the German animal welfare law limited the piglet age for the castration without anaesthesia to the first seven days of life.

Use of anaesthetics during castration

[165]
The current German animal welfare law, had allowed male piglets be surgical castrated without anaesthesia up to four weeks of life. Since April 2006 piglets in Germany can only be castrated without anaesthesia in the first 7 days of life. This surgical procedure is painful during and also after the operation, for newborn animals as well as for adults.

Zöls and colleagues in a study of 2006 found that the use of Meloxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, produced a significant relieve of pain during and after the castration, measured on the levels of the stress hormone Cortisol in the blood serum, compared with animals castrated without anaesthetics. However Zöls and colleagues in 2007 found that the use of local anaesthetics (Procaine Hydrochloride and Lidocaine Hydrochloride) used in castration of four to six day old male piglets is not justified as increase of the stress hormone cortisol was noted in animals which received the anaesthetics, compared with control groups without the medication. [166]

Zöls and colleagues also assessed the use of isoflurane-anesthesia together with Meloxicam during castration of piglets. Cortisol did rise significantly in castrated animals with or without isofrlurane-anaesthesia, compared with untreated animals. However, a significant lower cortisol level after castration was attained with administrating Meloxicam prior to castration. The authors concluded that isoflurane-anaesthesia does not reduce pain after castration, only Meloxicam showed palliative effect after the castration. [167]

England

England avoids castration slaughtering boars before reaching puberty.

Norway

Castration without anaesthesia is not allowed in Norway since 2002 and a total prohibition of piglet castration was introduced in 2009.

Switzerland

Also in Switzerland no castration of piglets are allowed without anaesthesia, beginning in 2009.

Improvac, the immune sterility

[168]
South Africa and New Zealand decided against surgical castration. They slaughter the animals before they become mature. Australia opted in 1998 for the immune castration using Improvac which must be injected two times. Improvac is a vaccine against the Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH), which is secreted by the hypothalamus and regulates the production of Androstenon in the testicles of the boar. The immune system of the boar, activated by Improvac, destroys the Gonadotropin Releasing Hormon and Androstenon cannot be produced.

Pfizer notes in its site that the practice of physical castration is not 100% effective in controlling boar taint: studies show that up to 3% of gilts and physical castrates can have detectable taint levels. Heavily soiled living conditions can promote high levels of the taint compound skatole in any pig, including gilts, young boars and castrates. The company also stresses that castrated pigs are less efficient than intact boars at converting feed into lean body. The use of Improvac is approved by the EU since May 2008.

The Danish agrarian organisation Landbrug & Fodevarer refuse the use of Improvac, alleging that customers from abroad did not accept the meat from imune sterilised boars. [169]

PIGCAS, a project to collect informations on pig castration in the EU

[170]
The overall objective of the project PIGCAS is to provide information on pig castration that will support EU policy. In general NGOs, and in a weaker way Government/Administration are against castration and in favour of natural state of the animals and veterinarians, producers (main stream) and slaughter plants in favour of castration.

The PIGCAS reports the opinion of the European countries in relation to castration: United Kingdom, Greece and The Netherlands are clearly against castration. Portugal, Ireland and Finland are moderately against castration. Spain, France, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Norway, Estonia, Eslovenia, Poland, Germany and Lithuania had an undecided position about castration. Finally Cyprus, Italy, Slovakia, Hungary, Belgium and Latvia can be considered moderately in favour of castration.

Use of anaesthesia prior to castration is more accepted unanimously than castration without anaesthesia. Stakeholders consider altogether that consumers, instead of producers should support extra cost entailed by anaesthesia.

The biologist Hanno Würbel, from the University of Giessen, Germany, says that unfortunately our animal welfare ethic is an utilitarian ethic, weighing between the sufferings of animals and the benefits for humans. He also points to the fact that the German animal welfare law also permits to trim the tail of animals, to grind down the teeth, to amputate one toe of chickens, castration of cattle,

Dehorning

[171]
Stafford and Mellor 2005 write that dehorning and disbudding are painful procedures which trigger cortisol response to a rapid rise, declining to normal values after about 8 h. They are carried out on cattle to facilitate management. The authors conclude that cautery disbudding is preferable to amputation dehorning, but for optimal pain relief xylazine sedation, local anaesthesia and a NSAID should be used with both procedures.

The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) supports the combination of a local anesthetic and ketoprofen administered prior to scoop dehorning of 3-to 4-month-old calves. It virtually abolished the rise in plasma cortisol concentration routinely observed after dehorning. The association deplores that regulatory access and cost remain obstacles to practical application. The use of pharmaceuticals can burden producers in terms of both direct and indirect costs, such as time delays and a potential need for more veterinary assistance. [172]

Halal food, the Muslim food is big business, but Germany fear the wrath of animal rights groups

[173]
Almost 100 tons/week of halal salami and sausages are being produced by Meemken in Gehlenberg/Germany [174]. International food companies such as Nestlé and Unilever entered this market years ago. German food producers and retailer are getting interested in this business which promises new ways to make money in face of the actual economic crysis. The industry is looking for the market of a purchasing power of EUR 20 billion per year of Turkish descent in Germany, and global sales of halal foods are expected to reach USD 641 billion and in the EU USD 67 billion in 2010.

In France, the Casino chain of supermarkets supplies halal meat products, Britain Tesco and Sainsbury's and the Netto chain sells halal products from Meemken.

Some German supermarkets hesitate to offer halal food because they fear to get into trouble with animal protection groups which do not agree with slaughter of animals which are not previously stunned. German poultry producer Wiesenhof has had its products certified as halal for year but is afraid to deter non-Muslim customers and does not label their product as halal.

Halal certification depends on the certifier some are more stringent that others, such as Mahmoud Tatari of Halal Control in Ruesselsheim/Germany. Halal Control certifies small businesses. The association says that industrially processed meat cannot be halal, because the livestock must not suffer stress or agony, which is not attainable in mass production. Mahmoud Tatari says that his standard is based on the four existing Sunni law schools, which comprises twelve professors of Islamic science. Halal Control gave eighty meat product on market which were labelled as halal to be analysed. Within this test 30 percent were found to be contaminated with DNA of swine. [175]

The giants Nestlé and Unilever are making good business. Nestlé already earns more from halal products than it does from organic food. The company also produces icecream cone chocolate vanilla, a difficult product because vanilla is considered haram as it is often extracted using alcohol. [176]

Industrial products range from cheese without animal enzymes to biscuits, herbs and coffee ant others. It is important that producers use detergents that contain no alcohol to clean theier production line.


Nutraceuticals

are foods which can provide protection and/or treatment of diseases.


Fast food, Snacks and Finger Food

are foods served in canteens, Bakery shops and snack bars having a great segment with classic sandwiches as a small meal and the "mediterranean range" like baguettes, croissants, pita bread and ciabatta.

Convenience Foods

[177]
Searching for new market segments Convenience Foods was increasingly considered to have great future. Convenient shops should sell small packages, ready to eat snacks.

They should include a coffee serve, have a post counter, a copy machine and very important for Germany: a counter for Toto-Lotto bets. All trials to install such a chain of such stores in Germany have failed mainly because of regulations concerning store opening time.

Convenience Foods however is being sold as frozen food ready to serve, frozen vegetables already seasoned, different frozen fish dishes.
A growing importance have convenience foods for restaurants and fast food restaurants as well as food industry which uses processed raw ware.
The trend of Convenience Foods lies not in new stores but to place these products together with standard packagings where the consumer can choose between different price and quality of products.

Mood Food? The effect of chocolate on people suffering depression

[178]
Golomb and colleagues 2010 studied the effect of chocolate on people suffering depression. In this study mood was assessed using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) [179].

People with positive depression screen result CES-D score higher than 16 presented chocolate consumption of 8.4 servings of chocolate per month and major depression with CES-D score higher than 22 consumed 11.8 servings, compared with 5.4 servings per month consumed by not screening positive people.

Increased caffeine, fat, carbohydrate, or energy intake, could not be related with the mood symptoms detected in this study, and chocolate seemed to be the causative of a mood lift, a reason why people with higher CES-D scores eat more chocolate. However, the authors presented no evidence that chocolate had a sustained benefit on mood. They call for studies to elucidate the chocolate-mood association and its role in depression as a cause or cure.

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