Subsections
[2875]
A preparation of beta-glucan, obtained from spent brewer's yeast, was evaluated
for potential food applications. This material was autolysed and the cell walls
that were obtained were homogenized, extracted firstly with alkali, then with
acid, and then spray dried.
Fragmentation of the cell walls during homogenization is regarded responsible
for higher viscosity by Saowanee Thammakiti and colleagues. The beta-glucan
obtained in this way had higher properties as compared with commercial
beta-glucan from baker's yeast.
The authors suggest that beta-glucan obtained from brewer's yeast can be used
in food products as a thickening, water-holding, or oil-binding agent and
emulsifying stabilizer.
[2876]
Infusion of flavours into empty yeast cells is being developed by Gregory
Dardelle and coleagues. The researchers say that loaded yeasts stay longer in
mouth than conventional spray dry powder. This is due to adhesive properties
of yeast cells, which are thermally stable up to 240 
. Dardelle reports
that the passive loading technique, achieved by infusion, is limited to
hydrophobic flavours such as limonene. The release of flavour does not occur
in pure fat, Only water can open the external shell structure.
[2877]
Application of beta-glucan prepared from spent brewer's yeast as a fat replacer
in mayonnaise was studied by Worrasinchai, and colleagues Fat was partially
substituted by beta-glucan at levels of 25, 50, and 75% achieving higher
storage stability than full fat mayonnaise with acceptable sensory with
beta-glucan not more than 50%. The authors conclude that spent brewer's yeast
beta-glucan may be used as a fat replacer in mayonnaise.
Ingredients firms in
Europe have created healthy alternatives such as powdered tapioca starch that
can replace 50% to 97% butter in bakery products. Other new ingredients
based on lauric acid enable the production of low caloric whips, others reduce
egg and fat content of cakes.
[2878]
Rujirat Santipanichwong and Manop Suphantharika studied the application of
carotenoids beta-carotene and lutein, as natural colourants in reduced-fat
mayonnaise with 50% substitution of oil using spent brewer's yeast
beta-glucan as a fat replacer.
Lutein was found to destabilize the emulsion resulting in significant
variation of the oil droplet size during storage and a spontaneous reduction of
the viscoelastic properties.
Beta-carotene, however, did not change the stability of the emulsion. The
authors concluded that the addition of these colourants in the concentration
range tested seemed to have no effect on the textural properties of reduced-fat
mayonnaise.
[2879]
The effect of beet and honey on quality attributes and
carotene retention of carrot fortified milk product during storage at
30 for 10 days were studied. The study showed in overall that addition
of equal mixture of beet and honey along with carrot is effective for quality
improvement and carotene retention of carrot fortified milk product.
Caroteen preservation in food is necessary to ensure a stable amount of
carotene during storage. Among the carotenoids, beta-carotene theoretically possesses 100% vitamin A
activity while alfa-carotene possesses between 53% , and is an excellent
source of vitamins B and C as well as calcium pectate, an extraordinary pectin
fiber that has been found to have cholesterol-lowering properties Several
studies have stated that red beet root (Beta vulgaris) is a good source of
natural antioxidant addition of 1:1 mixture of beet and honey along with
carrot is effective for quality improvement and carotene retention of carrot
fortified milk product.
[2880]
Bandyopadhyay and colleagues studied the effect of natural sources of
antioxidant of beet (Beta vulgaris), mint (Mentha spicata L.) and ginger
(Zingiber officinale L.) in sandesh (a heat desiccated product of coagulated
milk protein mass called chhana which is similar to cottage cheese). The
authors found that although ginger had the highest antioxidant activity but
mint showed better effectiveness in the inhibition of lipid oxidation. The
authors concluded that regarding antioxidant activity and lipid oxidation,
combination of mint or ginger with beet showed better result as compared to beet alone.
[2881] Studying several honey samples from Burkina
Faso Meda and colleagues found that the correlation between radical
scavenging activity and proline content was higher than that for total
phenolic compounds. The authors suggest that the amino acid content of honey
should be considered more frequently when determining its antioxidant activity.
[2882] Aljadi and Kamaruddin studied
the antioxidant activity of Malaysian honeys. The authors found that the
characteristic antioxidant activities showed a marked correlation with the
total phenolic contents. The authors concluded that honey has antioxidative
and radical scavenging properties, which are mainly due to its phenolic content.
[2883]
Baltrusaityte and colleagues found that all Lithuania honey and beebread
phenolic extracts were able to scavenge free radicals, however their
scavenging activity varied in a wide range, on average between 43.0% and
95.7%. and all samples contain para-coumaric acid, kaempferol, chrysin and
apigenin. The authors concluded that remarkable variations in antioxidant
properties and content of phenolic compounds in honey from different sources
should be considered in using honey as a source of natural dietary
antioxidants.
[3318]
Chitosan used to encapsulate ingredients has improved stability to thermal
processing, lipid oxidation, freezing and thawing. It is one of the few
food-grade polymers to have a positive charge across a wide pH range and can be
used in an electrostatic layer-by-layer deposition method to encapsulate
negatively charged particles.
Chitosan is alkaline deacetylated chitin (poly-b-1,4-D-N-acetylglucosamine).
Chitin is produced from shellfish and seafood waste, like shells from
crustaceans such as shrimps, crabs, lobsters and krills. Chitin is
deacetilated to chitosan by boiling it for several hours in a 50% w/v alkali
solution.
[3319]
Foregoing studies indicated that chitosan inhibits in vitro digestibility of
lipids.
Yeonhwa Park and colleagues in a study using rats, suggest that encapsulation
of lipids by chitosan does not inhibit their in vivo digestibility. The
researchers conclude that it should be possible to use chitosan to
microencapsulate lipids and lipid-soluble components such as omega-3s or
fat-soluble ingredients like certain vitamins without compromising their
bioavailability. According to the authors human studies should confirm this.
[3320]
Lucas-Abellán and colleagues 2008
found that the encapsulation of flavonols quercetin and myricetin, in beta-cyclodextrin improved the dissolution and
the bioavailability of quercetin and myricetin in functional beverages. These
compounds were linked to the inhibition of lipid oxidation, improving heart health.
[3321]
Microencapsulation technologies are developed using gums arabic, hydrolyzed
starches, emulsifying starches whey proteins, sodium caseinate, and gelatin to
avoid commodification, changing prices and cope with new consumer demands.
Jarunee Loksuwan and colleagues from the Thammasat University in Thailand found
in a study in 2006 that acid-modified tapioca starch had better spray dried
encapsulating properties than native starch and maltodextrin. Suphuric acid
was used for the hydrolisation, and neutralisation with sodium carbonate prior
to steam pressure treatment.
[3322]
Stephan Drusch from the University of Kiel microencapsulated 20% and 50%
fish oil in a matrix of 2,2% sugar beet pectin
and glucose syrup
obtaioning a good oxidative stability.
The authors found that the proportion of
non-encapsulated fat was higher in samples with 50% oil compared to samples
with 20% oil and may limit the maximum oil load of the microcapsules.
[3323]
Annan, Borza and Truelstrup Hansen encapsulated probiotic bacteria
Bifidobacterium adolescentis 15703Tin
alginate-coated gelatin microspheres to enhance their survival in adverse
conditions of the gastro-intestinal tract. The Gelatin microspheres were
cross-linked with the non-cytotoxic genipin and coated with alginate
cross-linked by calcium ions from external or internal sources. An improved
survival of up to 16 per cent was achieved.
The authors concluded that this novel microencapsulation method protects
probiotic bifidobacteria during exposure to adverse environmental conditions.
This technology may improve existing probiotic foods.
[926]
Ashwini, Jyotsna and Indrani, 2008 studied the effect of hydrocolloids like
Arabic, guar, xanthan, carrageenan and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose in
combination with emulsifiers such as glycerol monostearate and sodium
stearoyl-2-lactylate on the quality of eggless cake.
The authors found that the addition of hydrocolloids to wheat flour as well as
in the presence of emulsifiers increased the quality of eggless cake.
Best results in eggless cake were found with hydroxypropylmethylcellulose in
combination with sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate.
[927]
Karim and Bhat 2009 assessed the use of by-products of the fishing industry
to produce fish gelatin for food and pharmaceuticals. Gelatine from cattle
and pork are being replaced by thickening agents like hydrocolloids and
special starches following the BSE scandal or because of religious believes.
Marine gelatin receives, therefore, much attention.
In this review the authors stress that especially gelatine from warm-water fish
has similar characteristics to mammalian gelatin and may be used in food
products.
[928]
Arnesen and Gildberg developed an extraction method for gelatine from Atlantic
salmon and Atlantic cod skin by the acid extraction process, filtration and ion
exchange treatment. No fishy odour was left after treatment. The obtained
gelatine contained hydroxyproline and proline 16.6% from salmon and 15.4% from
cod; and serine 4.6% from salmon and 6.3% from cod. Best extraction
temperature was 56 .
[929]
Gómez-Guillén and colleagues 2005, studying the gelatin extraction of
Dover sole (Solea vulgaris) skin, found that 25 mM lactic acid was to be preferred to
50 mM acetic acid for the skin swelling process, because the gelatin prepared
with lactic acid did not present the negative organoleptic properties of the
acetic acid solution. However, using 50 mM lactic acid the quality of the
gelatine was not satisfying.
[930]
According to Fernández-Díaz, Montero and Gómez-Guillén 2008 the gel
strength of gelatins prepared from cod and hake skin were substantially
improved with coenhancers such as glycerol, microbial transglutaminase, and
magnesium sulphate, the later was very efficient in gelatin from cod. The authors
say that gelling and melting points improved, depending on the species.
[931]
Yifen Wang and colleagues 2008 studied the correlation between the physical
properties and nanostructure of gelatins made of channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus) skins pretreated with sodium hydroxide, acetic acid, or water, and
then extracted with hot water. The acid pretreatment group showed the highest
gel strength and protein yield, and viscosity, compared to the water
pretreatment group which had the lowest quality.
Analysing of the nanostructures of the gels, using atomic force microscopy (AFM),
the authors found that the acid-pretreated gelatin was composed of sponge-like
aggregates, while the others showed separated individual aggregates. The alkaline
pretreatment group presented annular pores but no correlation with the physical
properties was found. The authors, however, state that analysing the different
atomic force microscopy (AFM) patterns may relate to the gelatin's physical
properties.
[932]
Gómez-Guillén and colleagues 2001 compared the gelatin from skins of
marine species. Gelatins presenting the best gelling ability, together with
the best thermostability were obtained from flat-fish species (sole and
megrim), compared to cold-adapted fish (cod and hake).
The authors describe amino acid composition of gelatin from fish and squid,
stressing that squid present the most significant changes. The squid gelatin
showed viscoelastic properties intermediate between those from flat-fish and
cold-adapted fish species. The authors highlight the importance of slow cold
maturation of gelatine of all species.
[933]
Gómez-Guillén and colleagues 2003 examined the quality of gelatin from
flounder skins frozen at -12 or -20 . The authors found that gelatin from
frozen skins at -12 had lower gel strength, less alpha and beta-chains
but more bands corresponding to lower molecular weight fragments and the
gama-components were less evident compared to the fresh skins, only the melting
point value of gelatin from frozen skins were higher than those of fresh skins.
[934]
According to Giménez and colleagues 2005 compared the effect of air-drying of
Dover sole (Solea vulgaris) skins for preservation using ethanol,
ethanol-glycerol mixture and marine salt, and stored for 160 days at room
temperature. The authors found no difference between the quality of the gelatine
obtained with the different drying methods. Only slight decrease in viscoelastic
properties as well as gelling and melting points were noted but proteins remained
stable. The authors concluded that drying did not affect negatively the gelatine
properties.
[935]
Giménez, Gómez-Guillén and Montero 2005 studied the effect of a
pre-washing with salt solutions such as NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, MgSO4 followed by a
mild acid pre-treatment of Dover sole (Solea vulgaris) skins. Skin washed with
NaCl and KCl resulted in changes of molecular weight distribution, improving gel
strength and rheological properties, compared with unsalted gelatin preparations.
However, MGSO4 was detrimental to the gelatin quality, reported the authors.
[936]
According to Gómez-Guillén and colleagues 2008 there is a tendency to use
biodegradable films for foodstuffs instead of synthetic plastic materials. They
protect food against drying, light, and oxygen and may be used as a carrier of
bioactive components. Fish gelatins films have good properties to preserve
foodstuffs, depending on the species specific amino acid composition, and the
molecular weight distribution, as an outcome of the processing conditions. The
authors also asses combining fish gelatins with soy protein isolate, oils and
fatty acids, certain polysaccharides, plasticizers and cross-linking agents. The
use of chitosan, lysozyme, essential oils, plant extracts, or vitamin C may add
antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to the gelatine films.
[937]
Giméne and colleagues 2009 assessed the extraction of gelatin from the giant
squid (Dosidicus gigas) using hydrolysis with pepsin prior extraction followed
by a mild-acid procedure. The collagenous residues of the first extraction were
submitted to a pepsin digestion to increase the yield of alfa-chains. The first
extraction presented better gelling characteristics compared with the second
extraction. Both, however, presented similar properties of the film produced from
them, exept the puncture force of films made from the first extraction, which was
higher than those of the second extraction.
[938]
Gómez-Guillén and colleagues 2008 compared the amino acid composition
and molecular weight distribution of bovine-hide gelatin and a tuna-skin
gelatin, and prepared edible films using glycerol and sorbitol as
plasticizers. The molecular weight distribution of the Tuna-skin gelatin
differed from bovine-hide gelatin while presenting higher quantities of
beta-components (covalently linked alpha-chain dimers), whereas the later had
certain degradation of alfa1-chains being, resulting from greater proteolysis.
The authors found that a higher water vapour permeability film prepared from
bovine-hide gelatin. However, the film from the skin of tuna presented a
ten-fold higher deformability. There were no differences the bovine-hide and the
tuna skin gelatin films concerning breaking force and water solubility.
[939]
Avena-Bustillos, Friedman and colleagues 2009 report that essential oils can
inactivate pathogenic bacteria on contact and in the vapor phase. The authors
developed apple-based edible films containing
essential oils to protect food against contamination by pathogenic bacteria
and extend shelf life of food. Essential oils from allspice, cinnamon, and
clove bud plants were used in apple-based edible films. The films were were
active against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella
enterica by both direct contact with the bacteria and indirectly by vapors
emanating from the films. Carvacrol, the main ingredient of oregano oil, was more effective against
the pathogens than cinnamon.
The authors also evaluated tomato puree film-forming solutions formulated into
edible films containing Oregano oil, allspice oil and garlic oil at 0.5% to 3%
(w/w) respectively. Essential oils reduce the viscosity of these films at the
higher shear rates, and increased their elongation and darkness. Water vapor
permeability of films were not altered. The authors concluded that both, apple-
based and tomato-based edible films may be used.
[940]
[941]
Gómez-Guillén, Giménez and Montero 2004 studied the effect of high
pressure, at 250 and 400 MPa, for 10 or 20 min, using pre-treatment in acid at
10 , compared with extraction in water at 45 . Pressure level
and time of treatment induced noticeable changes in molecular weight
viscoelastic properties.
The authors concluded that gelatin extraction of gelatin fish skins using high
pressure presents advantages compared with the conventional procedure using
water extraction. High pressure extraction offers gelatin of high gelling quality
and reduces extraction time to few minutes.
[942]
Montero, Fernández-Díaz and Gómez-Guillén 2002 studied extraction of
gelatin from cod and megrim skins at high pressure using 20 and 7 and
200, 300 and 400 Mpa. Gelatin gels from megrim were less turbid, independent
of the treatment, while the turbidity of cod gelatins decreased as pressure
increased, and increased with higher temperature. The gels of megrim presented
better characteristics as noted by those of cod.
The authors stress that gelation mechanism is different between pressure- and
heat-induced gels and the initial collagen and amino acids.
[943]
The addition of pectin to low fat cheese can improve its texture and flavour
characteristics according to He Liu, Xue Ming Xu, and Shi Dong Guo in 2008 .
The same authors had studied in 2007 the use of citrus low-methoxylated
pectin in low fat mayonnaise. The authors concluded that pectin weak-gel and
microparticulated pectin gel could be used as a fat mimetic in mayonnaise.
[944]
Ying Maand colleagues 2006 found that fine-granule starches prepared with
dextrozyme can act as mimetics for generating fatty mouthfeel. These starches
were used as fat replacer in mayonnaise with good results. [945]
Oreopoulou and colleagues 2002 used carbohydrate- or protein-based fat mimetics
to replace up to 50% of fat in cookies. The effect of these fat replacers on
textural behaviour of the products was studied by compression tests. The authors
found that hardness and brittleness of the cookies generally increased with fat
replacement. Better characteristics were found with the use of some fat
replacers when moderate increase was obtained. [946]
[947]
Starches have different properties due to differences in molecular structure.
Functionality of amylopectin is similar to gum arabic whilst the functionality
of amylose can be compared to gelatin, pectin and agar-agar.
Modified starches meet the gelling properties required by gums, jellies and
aerated confectionery such as marshmallows. Native potato starch consists of
amylopectin which resembles gum arabic, and amylose which is near to gelatin,
pectin and agar-agar. Varying the proportion of these components the starch
properties are modified accordingly.
Potato offers starches of varied applications.
In yoghurt starches replace gelatine which came under scrutiny because of the
risk caused by BSE and by doubts of the origin of bones and connective tissue
from pork in Halal and Kosher foods.
Rising food prices and emerging market for vegetarian food made it
attractive to develop a technology to use proteins from industrial potato waste as human food.
Potato starch may replace mung bean starch in the
production of glass noodles. Mung beans are very expensive and their supply is irregular. Glass noodles
must be frozen during production. That is the reason why they were produced in
China only during the winter. Potato starch has been adapted to this
production procedure.
Instant fried noodles is a convenience food with
short preparation time of no more than few minutes by adding hot water. This is achieved by adding 10 to
20 percent of potato starch to wheat flower in the formulation of instant fried
noodles.
Air-dried noodles are produced by air-drying which
replaces the frying step. Air-dried noodles contain 10 to 35 percent potato and tapioca starches to
wheat flour. Air-dried noodles contains significantly lower amounts of fat
which is an important quality of healthy foods.
Long life noodles maintain texture and taste of
freshly made noodles during extended storage by adding acidulants and heat sterilisation to reduce the
microbial growth. Retrogradation of starch degrades the texture of cooked
noodles during storage. Adding potato and tapioca starch reduces the
retrogradation, improving the texture stability and reducing cooking time.
Frozen and chilled noodles is gaining
importance in the convenience market. Texture and taste are enhanced with potato starches.
Rice noodles well known in Asia as rice being an important
staple food. Adding potato starch and tapioca starch to rice noodle formulation improves their
characteristics.
Transport of fruits, vegetables and fresh products under controlled atmosphere
Long transports of vegetables, fruits and other perishable products should be
made under controlled atmosphere with following composition [925]:
Atmosphere containing minimum of 95% CO
It should contain at maximum 2% of oxygen. The humidity of the atmosphere
should be 95%. It is possible to get the CO from air compressing it and
getting the CO using a special selective membrane. To cary bottles of
CO is also possible. Under these conditions the amount of bacteria
decreased in a period of 10 days from 200 millions to about 96% on salads.
Anaerobic bacteria must however be controlled carefully.
The Asian Longhorned Beetle ALB (Anoplophora glabripennis) is an invasive
beetle which menaces trees It has spread from Asia to US and was found in
Braunau am Inn (Germany) and in Austria. [3392]
Experts fear that the beetle is still being imported among pallets and other
wooden packagings.
Professor Jens-Georg Unger says that only 150 out of 300 000 Chinese containers
pass phytosanitary control each year. [3393] [3394]
The brown spruce longhorn beetle (BSLB), Tetropium fuscum (Fabr.), is native to
Europe but has recently been discovered in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where efforts
are under way to eradicate it.
Heat treatment To avoid export of BSLB phytosanitary measure heat treatment
50 for 30 minutes (or 55 for 15 minutes) to ensure 100%
mortality is being proposed by Lisa Mushrow and colleagues.
[3395]
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations calls for 56
and 30 minutes of heat treatment to kill wood beetles. [3396]
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency in its directive "Canadian Heat-treated
Wood Products Certification Program (CHTWPCP) for Export" demands for heat
treatment of 56/30 minutes to ensure BSLB-free wood. [3397]
Fumigation Heat treatment is expensive, reinfestation can occur and most of the
cargo does not allow heating.
Fumigation of the loaded container is now being used, such as disinfectants,
flammable gasses, carbon monoxide (CO), phosphine, bromoethane (ethyl bromide),
1,2 Dichlorethane, Chloropicrin, sulfuryl fluoride.
Some fumigants are applied as solid or liquid formulations from which the toxic
gases emanate: methyl bromide [3399], sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane),
formaldehyde,
chloropicrin or phosphine. Solid formulations like aluminium phosphide or
magnesium phosphide are widely used because they can release phosphine. Methyl
bromide, phosphine producing materials, chloropicrin and sulfuryl fluoride are
most commonly used. Solid formulations are in tablets, plates, strips, and
blankets or sleeves. [3400]
Important recommendations are:
- Recommendations on the Safe Use of Pesticides in Ships, and its
amendments [3398] [3401]
- International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, Class 9, UN no. 3359.
The Code demands for approved warning sign affixed to the access door
identifying the type and amount of fumigant used and the date and time of
fumigation. [3402]
Even cholpicrin, a deadly gas used in World War I has been found by health
officials in containers to be unloaded in Hamburg (Germany). Veldman, a n
experts from the harbour of Rotterdam, says that the number of fumigated
containers has grown five fold. Toxic remnants are found in foods like rice or
crackers, in toys, textiles and others. [3403]
Alternatives to poison fumigation Fumigation with carbon dioxide (CO2)
displaces oxygen and asphyxiate living vermin. However it does not kill eggs
and is at odds with the environment. Eggs can produce larvae and reinfestation
takes place.
Nitrogen from air kills all insects, pupae larvae and eggs. This technology is
friendly to environment because nitrogen is pumped from air. It can be used at
warehouses, silos, for bulk cargo, and containers. There is no danger for the
personal and it does not contaminate food because it is part of the air we
breath. This technology was developed in Germany. [3404]
[3405]
Ship containers are frequently treated with gas to combat pests or fungi. Dock
workers who open the containers, warehouse workers who repack the goods and
consumers who then purchase these goods, may be exposed to gas residues.
Professor Dr. Dr. Andreas Hensel, President of the German Federal Institute
for Risk Assessment (BfR) is concerned about the levels of residues of
fumigants and other volatile chemicals in clothes, furnitures or foods
transported in fumigated containers which may impair the health of consumers.
Measurements taken in the ports of Hamburg and Rotterdam revealed that the air
in many containers contains higherconcentrations of chemicals than are
admissible according to the guidance values of occupational health and safety.
These are not just residues of fumigants but also of other chemicals which are
released during transport from the consumer goods or packaging materials.
In individual cases, Dutch examinations of foods transported in fumigated
containers revealed that the maximum residue levels for fumigants had been
exceeded. Products like textiles or furniture, which had been transported in
import containers, continued to release fumigants and other chemicals, mostly for
a few hours, in some goods, however, the chemicals could still be measured after
weeks and months. The BfR, in November 2008, calls for more research on consumer
safety related to air treatment of ship containers.
[3406]
Job Ubbink and colleagues studied the free volume in trehalose demonstrating
that changes in free volume are intimately connected with molecular
organization and mobility of water in the crystalline and amorphous states.
The study proposes a mechanism for bioprotection for the survival of (micro)
organisms under conditions of extreme temperature or dehydration, like baker's
yeast which can be successively dehydrated and rehydrated without losing their
viability. It is believed that during dehydration, baker's yeast produces high
levels of trehalose, a key factor in biopreservation.
According to the authors, organisms, under extreme drought, form an
intracellular carbohydrate glass This glass state has high viscosity and
hydrogen-bonding interactions and stabilizes and protects the integrity of
complex biological structures and molecules.
[3407]
Komes, Drazenka and colleagues found in a study that the best retention of
aroma compounds in dehydrated pear purees was noticed in the case when freeze
drying and trehalose addition were combined. In dehydrated pear cubes,
previously dipped in trehalose solution, the highest aroma retention was also
determined.
This study showed possible application of trehalose as potentially beneficial
food ingredient, with the aim to improve the quality of dehydrated fruit
products, especially their aroma, and to produce superior dried fruit products
or ingredients, which are widely used in food formulation.
The authors suggest that glass transformation properties of the material change
from a crystalline (glass) to a liquid could prevent the loss of small
volatile compounds such as esters during drying and storage. Volatiles are
encapsulated in the amorphous glass and low mobility leading to the increased
stability of the material being preserved. Above the glassy state, temperature
collapses and sometimes crystallization takes place… and the encapsulated
volatiles are released.
New RTDS non-GM plant breedings technology for sorghum, rice and
canola:
[3408]
According to Cibus, the Rapid Trait Development System RTDS process, is known
as directed mutagenesis. It works through the cell's natural process of gene
repair. Every time a cell copies DNA, it makes "scrivener" errors or spelling
mistakes.
These variations happen all the time, which is how natural variation occurs.
Cibus' technology harnesses the cell's own natural DNA repair machinery to
correct such spelling mistakes, thus directing DNA repair enzymes to correct
and repair the targeted gene in a specific way in order to produce a desired
trait. No foreign DNA is incorporated into the organism and no Marker Assisted
Selection is used.
Gene expressing saturated fatty acids
[3409]
John Shanklin and colleagues found that the gene beta-Ketoacyl-acyl carrier
protein (ACP) synthase II (KASII) elongates 16:0-ACP to 18:0-ACP in the
plastid, where it competes with three other enzymes at the first major branch
point in fatty acid biosynthesis.
The authors conclude that early embryo development appears sensitive to
elevated 16:0, whereas at later stages, up to 53% of 16:0, i.e., a 7-fold
increase over wild-type levels, is tolerated. According to the authors, the
role of KASII in seed metabolism are herewith explained. They say that the
modulation of Arabidopsis KASII levels is sufficient to convert its temperate
oilseed composition to that of a palm-like tropical oil.
This knowledge may lead to transform oilseed plants growing in moderate
climate to produce palm oil similar fats which do not require hydrogenation and
are thus free of trans-fatty acids. This could reduce the pressure on palm oil plantations.
USA, trying to boost farming started many projects . National Renewable Energy
Laboratory claims that the production of ethanol from US corn has already
reached the volume of the Brazilian production. [3410]
The City of Portland, Oregon issued the Biofuel Requirements act, demanding
that in the City of Portland, on and after July 1, 2007 all diesel fuel shall
contain 5% biodiesel (B5 fuel) and on and after September 16, 2007, all
gasoline shall contain a minimum blend of 10% ethanol (E10 fuel), Biodiesel
for this act is produced from used cooking oil and/or feedstock from the Genera
Brassica (rape, mustard), Caina, Helianthus (sunflower) or Carthamus
(safflower). Palmoil is excluded from this issue. [2727]
[3411]
Tad Patzek, from the University of California looks at the
thermodynamics of the corn-ethanol biofuel cycle in 2004. He concludes that the minimum
cumulative energy consumption in restoring the environment polluted and
depleted by the industrial corn-ethanol cycle is over 7 times higher than the
maximum shaft work of a car engine burning the cycle's ethanol.
The industrial corn cycle is not renewable, and is unsustainable by a wide
margin. The limiting factors, nutrient-rich humus and water that carries the
dissolved nutrients to plant roots are augmented by chemicals obtained in the
linear, irreversible fossil fuel-based processes. Corn yields demand
continuously increases in fertilization rate of corn fields.
He calls the annual corn-ethanol biofuel production a human assault on geologic
processes and the geologic time scale.
Ethanol became the salvation for Midwest corn growers struggling to make ends
meet with a saturated market and slumping prices. U.S. ethanol production is
rising dramatically, thanks to generous corn subsidies, American soils have
been depleted for like 50 years or something. The only reason we can get any
good yeilds out of them is through massive fertilization. Fertilizer that we
synthesize using gasoline. It's very inefficient to use the new bio-fuels, as
they ultimately require more fossil fuels to produce than energy they yields.
[3412] [3413]
Sugar cane: Sugar cane grows in regions with abundant rain all the year round
growing season, cheap land and not expensive labour. The product can be sold as
sugar or as alcohol according to the demands of the market.
The Unicamp University study shows that with no clearing of rain forests there
are 2.5E8 hectares of reasonbly level land in Brazil with soil, rain, truck
access, etc. for mechanical cultivation of sugar cane. Also there is great
potential in enzimatic hydrolysis for efficiency improvement of the
conversion.
Wener Theurich, German editor of Spiegel Online, calls for a gourmet movement
to pep up the Burger. "Rome-Burger" as he calls it, has a genial recipe:
Werner Theurich's Rome Burger:
- 125 g lean meat is cut in very fine stripes, seasoned with salt, fresh grounded pepper and fried.
- 60 g fresh rasped Italian Provolone or Swiss Greyerzer is added and heated until everything sticks together in form of a disc.
- Hamburger bread or a small baguette is cut and light-brown under a grill.
Put the meat/cheese between the halves of the bread, joined with onion rings or
cubes which had been glazed by heating it in butter.
The gourmet-guru Theurich recommends to serve Rome Burger with a French vin du
pays, such as from Minervois or from the Rhone.
Sounds good, but please don't change any ingredients as the fine gourmet
feeling will be lost and you will have an ordinary everyday Burger.
The whole revolutionary fast food story in the German edition of Spiegel
Online, together with the picture of the author and of the Rome Burger you find
at
http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,444478,00.html
[3414]
According to Christian Schäfer and colleagues vegetable protein is a valuable
alternative to animal proteins in texturised foodstuffs, but has poor gelling
properties.
Using a microbial transglutaminase to build
isopeptide bonds cross-linking the proteins, improved the gel characteristics
from protein of pea and soy. With the use of microbial transglutaminase so as
being suggested by the authors, leguminous protein may become an alternative
to animal protein in the production of texturised foodstuffs.
Pea protein is commercialy available. It is purified and highly digestible due
to the elimination of anti-nutritional factors during the manufactoring process.
Pea protein is not on the list of major allergens which require warning
labelling. I offers excellent water-lipid linking and emulsing qualities which
stabilizes the product during cooking.
In concentration of 0,5% to 3% pea protein can be used in minced meat and
meat substitutes where it stabilzes the structure and limits the loss of
water, particularly in the case of frozen foodstuffs. In reconstituted meat
and prepared food pea protein increases the succulence of food even when it is
re-heated. It is also being used in marinades.
[3415]
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), together
with associated cas genes, provided resistance against phages, and resistance
specificity is determined by spacer-phage sequence similarity.
This knowledge opens the way to modify the genetic structure of starter
cultures for more resistance to the attack of bacteriophages. Food industry,
mainly dairy production, depends on bacterial cultures which sometimes are
changed or killed by these bacterial viruses.
According Philippe Horvath and colleagues working for Danisco and Nestlé, the
findings of this research will enable researchers to select bacteria which have
developed natural resistance against the bacteriophages. New starter cultures
may thus be selected without artificial genetic modification of the bacteria
and may present high resistance to bacteriophages.
[3417]
Phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol
are added in functional foods based on milk or yoghurt for their ability to
reduce serum cholesterol. Blank and colleagues 2008 studied antimicrobial
proprieties of these compounds in milk and yoghurt starter cultures.
They found that the tested commercial phytosterol had no effect on the growth
of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus from yoghurt
cultures, nor did it influence the growth of the spoilers Pseudomonas,
Saccaromyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus ochraceous. However, when stearoyl
lactylate, a dispersing agent, was added, growth of Lactobacillus and
Strepotococcus bulgaricus was affected. Pseudomonas was not affected by the
commercial dispersible phytosterol preparation.
The synergistic effect of Phytosterol and stearoyl lactylate should be
considered when used in these products.
New products incorporating WPI, such as sports drinks are being developed,
however, inclusion of WPI in sufficient amounts to boost the nutritional
profile of extruded foods and snacks is difficult.
Onwulata 2004 extruded WPI in a twin screw extruder at about 40% moisture
content and 100
C. He found that WPI texturized by extrusion at different
pH values produced stringy products, showing that texturized WPI ingredients
with defined functionality can be created. He concluded that these products
have potential as ingredients to boost protein contents of products ranging
from extruded snacks to meat analogs. [3416]
Ingredients with new functionalities were proposed for whey protein
concentrates (WPC) and isolates (WPI) by Onwulata and colleagues (2003) in
order to increase their utilization. They described extrusion of WPC, WPI, and
whey albumin (WA) in a twin screw extruder To improve the nutritional profile
of crunchy snack foods, whey proteins, whey protein isolate (WPI), whey protein
concentrates (WPC), or whey albumin (WLA) , concentrated forms of whey, were
extruded with corn meal.
It was determined that addition of WPI adversely affected the crunchiness,
color, and texture of extruded snack foods. They found that all gel strength
were lost after 75 degrees C. Denaturation at these melt temperatures had
minimal effect on foaming. Similar results were obtained for extruded WPC and
WA. Varying melt temperature at the extruder die allowed a controlled rate of
denaturation of texturized ingredient with a predetermined functionality.
[3418]
Health snack products, using extrusion technology, that includes whey proteins
and low-glycemic starches such as cassava, cashew pulp, and barley as alternate
sources of starch are being developed by Onwulata and colleagues.
[3419]
[3420]
Whey proteins from milk are used as emulsifiers in a broad range of food
products including ice creams, beverages, salad dressing and sports
supplements. These tailored proteins complexes with carbohydrates, modified
by enzymes to cross-link proteins, or hydrolysis has been used. The protein
content of concentrates varies between 25 and 80 per cent) and isolates
which have more than 90 per cent protein.
Qixin Zhong and Mei Jin using supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) processing
developed whey protein ingredients with improved visual appearance of powders and
increased gel strength.
[3421]
Whey and lactose products in functional foods are used to increase added value
to the product. Debra Clare and colleagues studied the inclusion of calcium
into whey protein concentrates solutions and powders.
The addition of calcium improved the functionality characteristics under pH
3,35 extended heat treatment, gelation, and spray drying. In solution adding
calcium increased the thickening capacity, especially under refrigeration
temperatures, and doubling of the water-holding capacity of bound or
unfreezeable water of the solution was also observed.
[3422]
The tara gum E417, a galactomanan of the endosperm of the seeds of the tara
tree (Cesalpinia spinosa lin), is used to boost the gelling activity of agar
and carrageenanwas.
This gum was now found in 2007 by Sittikijyothin, Sampaio
and Goncalves to affect the rate of gelation of beta-lactoglobulin with gels
formed under heat of 80 at lower pH (pH4.6) being stronger than the gels
formed at neutral pH. This is important, as many food formulations are heated
in an acidic environment.
The authors say that the addition of non-gelling
tara gum affected the heat-set gelation behaviour of a solution of
beta-lactoglobulin which is considered to be the primary gelling agent of whey.
[3423]
To increase shelf life of food products a line of styrene copolymers using
silver-based antimicrobial ingredients from Agion were developed by BASF
providing continuous protection from microbes by releasing silver ions to the
surface of the product at a slow and steady rate.
Silver is already being incorporated in plastics, such as used in
refrigerators, water filtration, cutting boards, cellphones, keyboard and
clinical devices turning the surfaces self sanitising.
[3424]
According Ag POLYMER an antimicrobial cheese polymer coating with silver-ion
zeolite ist intended to coat cheese and protect it from microbes in the
European dairy industry.
Agion's silver antimicrobial ingredient has been approved for food and water
contact by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Food
Safety Agency.It is a notified existing substance under the EU's directive
European Biocidal Products Directive (BPD) and listed for use as an indirect
food contact substance with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
[3425]
[3426]
The Norway company Norferm in Tiedbergodden expands its capacity 8 000 to 40
000 t/year of bioprotein using methane gas from Heidrun field in the Norwegian
Sea as raw ware.
The BioProtein from Norferm is produced by fermentation of methane, oxygen,
ammonia and minerals together with methanotrophic bacteria Methylococcus
capsulatus. The resulting product contains 70 % of crude protein and can be
used as feed for chicken, swine, pets an fish. [3427]
The University of Bergen, together with Norferm developed the technology of the
fermenter of methane. Other projects are running to bring Methylocuccus
capsulatus to produce oral vaccines.
[3428]
[3429]
Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas that remains in the atmosphere for
approximately 9-15 years. Methane is over 20 times more effective in trapping
heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide (CO2) over a 100-year period and is
emitted from a variety of natural and human-influenced sources.
Human-influenced sources include landfills, natural gas and petroleum
systems,agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile combustion,
wastewater treatment, and certain industrial process.
Methane is also a primary constituent of natural gas and an important energy
source. As a result, efforts to prevent or utilize methane emissions can
provide significant energy, economic and environmental benefits.
[3430]
Paula Leona and Ana Rojas found that an edible film based on 1% gellan and
glycerol in water enhanced the stability and non-enzymic browning resistance
of vitamin C having an application as antioxidant in various formulations.
Natural antioxidants like ascorbic acid are increasingly used in place of
synthetic ones.
[3431]
Browning of fresh cut fruits is initiated by polyphenol oxidase enzyme (PPO)
in presence of oxygen and converts phenolic compounds into dark coloured
pigments.
Rojas-Grau and colleagues 2008 measured levels of PPO to quantify the
anti-browning activity of ascorbic acid, N-acetylcysteine, and glutathione
[,] on fresh-cut Fuji apple
slices stored at four degrees Celsius for 14 days. The compounds were studied
individually or in combination.
The colour of the apples was maintained over 14 days at 4 when using
N-acetylcysteine and glutathione together, or
N-acetylcysteine[,]alone in
1 per cent concentration. Both are natural products and are thiol-containing
compounds. The enzyme PPO was inactivated.
The authors concluded that both natural antibrowning agents offer advantage over
the use of ascorbic acid.
[3432]
Fish oil is highly susceptible to oxidation, resulting in a fishy taste and
smell. Aside of microencapsulation Marla Luther and colleagues 2007 suggest
ethanol extracts of Chardonnary grape and black raspberry seed flours to
suppress lipid oxidation and rancidity development of omega-3 fatty acids in
fish oil.
The black raspberry and Chardonnary seeds flour extract also exhibited
bacteriocidal activity against E. coli and inhibited the growth of Listeria
monocytogenes at a level of 165 
g seed flour equivalents/mL. According
to the authors, the flour of these seeds may become a natural preservative
and antioxidant omega-3 fatty acids added to a variety of canned foods,
bread, dairy products and confectioneries.
[3433]
Nanotechnology describes the
manufacture, examination and use of structures, molecular materials, inner interfaces with
at least one critical dimension below 100 nm.
Nanoparticles are understood as being engineered granular particulates, tubes
and fibres with a diameter 
100nm (including their agglomerates and
aggregates) for at least one dimension which have been shown to have low
solubility in biological systems. Based on knowledge acquired so far these
particles are particularly toxicologically relevant.
It is expected that the importance of nanotechnology will continue to grow and
that workers and consumers will be increasingly exposed to it.
According to present knowledge, the insoluble and poorly soluble nanoparticles2
are particularly toxicologically relevant.
As the exposure of humans and the environment as well as the toxicological and
ecotoxicological properties and risks have not yet been characterised, there is
a general need to conduct further studies and to close the gaps in knowledge
through research and assessment activities.
Chemical legislation does not specify any obligation to test (e.g.
toxicological studies) or assess widespread nanoparticles like for instance
titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, silicon dioxide or "carbon black"
that involve a nanoscale modification to a high production volume existing
substance with the same CAS Number.
[3434]
Rothen-Rutishauser and colleagues 2009 assessed the toxicity of cerium oxide
nanoparticles produced by flame spray synthesis when deposited on the
surface of cultured lung cells. Cell viability was not impaired, however, the
permeability of the cell layer increased.
According to the authors certain structures of particular proteins that seal the
interstices between the epithelial cells had altered under the influence of the
nanoparticles, and oxidative DNA damage increased. The authors say that the
method used in their study may be used for further studies combining the
production and the tocicologic study of nanoparticles.
Up to now there has been no specific regulation for nanoparticles in the areas
food, consumer goods or cosmetics. For instance, no particle sizes are
stipulated in the purity criteria for the approved food additives silicon
dioxide (E551) and titanium dioxide (E171).
In order to promote the acceptance of nanotechnology by the public,
accompanying social scientific research should be conducted and there should be
transparent discussion of the risks with all interested stakeholders in society
(cf. for instance http://www.dialognanopartikel.de/downloads.html).
The main goal of this research strategy is to structure the research area, to
develop the measurement of particles (metrology), to record information on
exposure and toxicological/ecotoxicological effects, to promote the development
of a sophisticated risk related test and assessment strategy, safety and risk
management.
[3435]
Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of
roughly one to 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel
applications. Many nanoscale materials are regarded as "chemical substances"
under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).
[3436]
The
paper discusses the potential environmental benefits of nanotechnology,
conduct risk assessment, responsible development, research needs for both
environmental applications and implications of nanotechnology and concludes
with staff recommendations for addressing science issues and research needs.
The paper organises nanoparticles in four groups:
- Carbon-based materials: These nanomaterials are composed mostly
of carbon, most commonly taking the form of a hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or
tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are referred to as
fullerenes, while cylindrical ones are called nanotubes. These particles have
many potential applications, including improved films and coatings, stronger
and lighter materials, and applications in electronics.
- Metal-based materials: These nanomaterials include quantum
dots, nanogold, nanosilver and metal oxides, such as titanium dioxide. A
quantum dot is a closely packed semiconductor crystal comprised of hundreds or
thousands of atoms, and whose size is on the order of a few nanometers to a
few hundred nanometers. Changing the size of quantum dots changes their optical properties.
- Dendrimers: These nanomaterials are nanosized polymers built
from branched units. The surface of a dendrimer has numerous chain ends, which
can be tailored to perform specific chemical functions. This property could
also be useful for catalysis. Also, because three-dimensional dendrimers
contain interior cavities into which other molecules could be placed, they may
be useful for drug delivery.
- Composites: They combine nanoparticles with other
nanoparticles or with larger, bulk-type materials. Nanoparticles, such as
nanosized clays, are already being added to products ranging from auto parts
to packaging materials, to enhance mechanical, thermal, barrier, and
flame-retardant properties.
Jean-Marie Lehn in 1987 recived the Nobel-Price of chemistry for his work on
Industrial involvement in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is already being
widely used by L'Oreal, Unilever and Lancome in their cosmetics and health products.
The NanoFood consortium was established by Danisco and Arla Foods. The
consortium studies the applications, and improvement of the delivery of nutrients
or flavours using nanoparticles in food products. [3437]
[3438]
The Soil Association is a certifier of organic products in UK. The association
expresses concerns about the government's failure to follow scientific advice
and regulate products. The association calls for an immediate stop of commercial
release of nanomaterials until there is a sound body of scientific research into
all the health impacts.
[3439]
According to a survey on nanotechnology acceptance the majority of the
consumers are against the use of nanotechnology in food: 69 percent of the
respondents reject the use of nanoadditives in spices to prevent them from
becoming lumpy. 84 percentdo not want any foods whose appearance has been
rendered more appealing for longer through the use of nanoparticles.
[3440]
Wang and colleagues 2008 prepared oil/water emulsions using high-speed and
high-pressure homogenization of medium chain triacylglycerols as oil and
emulsions using Tween 20 as emulsifier.
The authors found enhanced anti-inflammation activity of curcumin encapsulated
in O/W emulsions but a negligible effect was found for curcumin in 10% Tween 20
water emulsion.
[3441]
Rachel McKendry and colleagues 2008, developed silicon-based cantilevers,
which are nanostructured levers examining how vancomycin binds to the surface
of the bacteria. The authors report that when the antibiotic attaches to the
cell wall of the bacteria, it generates a surface stress on the bacteria which
can be detected by a tiny bending of the levers. This stress contributes to
the disruption of the cell walls and the breakdown of the bacteria.
According to the authors, antibiotic resistant bacteria went through a simple
mutation which deletes a single hydrogen bond from the structure of their cell
walls, turning it difficult for the antibiotic to attach to the cell wall of the
bacteria turning it ineffective.
The authors stress that the research on cantilever sensors suggests that the
cell wall is disrupted by the combination of local antibiotic-mucopeptide
binding and the spatial mechanical influences on the cells' structure. This may
help to develop new antibiotics and be useful for drug screening.
[3442]
Living bacterial strains of probiotics will be produced using a new technique
which continuosly removes lactic acid during fermentation by electrodialyses.
Lactic acid limits the bacterial growth. Removig it from the system, as it is
being formed, improves yields and quality of the probiotic culture.
The Reverse Electro-Enhanced Dialysis (REED) system was developed by the Danish
firm Jurag Separation and can be combined with traditional or bipolar membrane
electro dialysis processes continuously changing the direction of
electrical current. It avoids thus fouling of the membrane. The system is a
continuous ion-exchange across selective ion-exchange membranes without the use
of resins.
Foods prepared with
rice, corn and potato lack some nutrients. Quinoa, sorghum and teff are looked
upon to increase variety of ingredients of gluten-free foods.
It has 12-18% of protein and is therefore of high
nutritional value. Its coating, however has a bitter taste from saponins. It must
be processed to remove the saponin soaking the quinoa for several hours. The
saponins of quinoa may be lightly toxic and laxative demanding a good
preparation. [3444]
Commercial sorghum refers to the cultivation of Sorghum spp grasses used for
grain, fibre and fodder. The plants are cultivated in Africa, Asia and Mexico.
[3445]
Teff (Eragrostis tef) is an important crop in Ethiopia.
[3446]
[3443]
[3447]
Grain sorghum tolerates conditions of limited moisture and extended drought
when other grains do not grow any more. It is used for unleavened breads,
boiled porridge or gruel, malted beverages including beer, popped grain and
syrup from sweet sorghum. Its protein content is higher than corn and about
equal to wheat. Its fat content is lower than corn but higher than wheat.
In US sorghum is hydrolysed to dextrose for use in foods.
There are about 30 species of sorghum. Soghum hybrids are Sorghum almum and
Sorghum drummondii.
Some species of Sorghum can contain levels of cyanide and nitrates lethal to
grazing animals in the early stages of the plant's growth. Stressed plants,
even at later stages of growth, can also contain toxic levels of cyanide.
According to Carolina Ciacci and colleagues, sorghum can be considered safe
for people with celiac disease. The scientists assessed safety and
tolerability of sorghum flour products in adult celiac disease patients in a
5 day challenge with sorghum-derived food product. At the end of the trial no
morphometric or immunomediated alteration of duodenal explants were found.
According to the authors sorghum is a cereal grain with potential to be
developed into an important crop for human food products which can be used in
food products which must be free of all wheat types and closely related
cereals such as barley and rye. White sorghum hybrids may therefore become
important for the production of wheat-free breads and cakes.
The authors conclude that sorghum can be considered safe for people with celiac
disease. Additional studies are needed to confirm the long-term safety and
acceptability of sorghum-derived food for gluten intolerant people.
[3448]
Farrar, Hartle, Hargrove and Greenspan 2008 studied the effect of ethanol
extracts of polyphenolic phytochemicals located in the bran fraction of
sorghum, on albumin glycation, important in the pathogenesis of many diabetic
complications. Sorghum brans with a high phenolic content and high antioxidant
properties inhibited protein glycation, low phenolic contentdid not. Ethanol
extracts of wheat, rice or oat bran did not inhibit protein glycation.
The authors concluded that certain varieties of sorghum bran may have an effect
on diabetes and insulin resistance. They suggest that select sorghum brans to be
used as a nutraceuticals.
[3449] [3450] [3451]
Salim-ur-Rehman and colleagues 2007 developed a vetch-bovine skimmed milk
powder as an alternative to mozzarella pizza cheese low in animal fat.
Vetch (Lathyrus sativus) is a legume grown in Pakistan. It has a high quality
protein ranging between 26.5 and 28.7 and fat 1.36 per cent.
Lactic acid bacterial culture of Streptococcus thermophillus and Streptococcus
bulgaricus and rennet were used in the preparation of the cheese.
The authors suggest a blend at the ratio of 12.5 vetch flour to 87,5 bovine
skimmed milk powder to be usedinstead of Mozzarella cheese for pizza
topping, to reduce coronary risks caused by animal fat.
Vetch must be submitted to a complicated detoxification process to get rid of the
neurotoxin amino acid (beta-N-oxalyl-L-alpha-beta-diaminopropionic acid), which
builds up in the brains and livers of non-ruminant animals. This toxin can cause
an irreversible disease called neurolathrysm which paralysis the lower limbs.
This may arise in animals with a single stomach, like humans, chickens and pigs.
Other antinutritional factors in grass pea include trypsin inhibitors, tannins,
lectins, phytate and oligosaccharides.
[3452]
Soymilk are often enriched with
120mg/100ml with calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, or calcium chloride to
obtain an equivalent content of calcium of cow milk. However poor solubility
reduce bioavailability of calcium from soymilk.
Tang and colleagues 2007 found that fermentation of calcium-fortified soymilk
with probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4962 and L.
casei ASCC 290 increased the calcium solubility up to 89 per cent, enhancing
bioavailability. The low pH resulted from the production oflactic and acetic
acid was found to cause the increased solubility.
The increase in calcium solubility observed was related to lowered pH
associated with production of lactic and acetic acids.
The conversion of the glucoside isoflavones into the bioactive isoflavone
aglycone form was also observed.
The fermentation significantly increased also the conversion of
isoflavones from their natural glucoside form into the
biologically active aglycone forms such as diadzein, genistein, and glycetein.
[3453]
Gardner and colleagues 2007 compared the effects of commercially available
soy milks made using whole soy beans, or using soy protein isolate with
low-fat dairy milk on plasma lipid, insulin, and glucose responses.
The authors report that a 25 g dose of daily soy protein from soy milk led to
a modest 5% lowering of LDL-C relative to dairy milk among adults with
elevated LDL-C. No different effect was found between whole say bean milk and
soy protein isolate milk.
[3454]
Natural botanic extracts such
as the two main components, magnolol and honokiol from magnolia bark extract
were tested in chewing gum and compressed mints for breath freshening and
relief of oral malodour. A strong germ-kill effect against bacteria such as
Streptococcus mutans, bacteria involved in dental caries formation,
Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and S. mutans were found.
The authors conclude that extract of magnolia bark has a significant
antibacterial activity against organisms responsible for oral malodour and its
use in compressed mints and chewing gum for improved breath-freshening is being
suggested.
[3455]
Enzymatic modification with transglutaminase was used to enhance the gelation
of canola protein isolate, opening the door to replace some gelation agents
which are getting more expensive from day to day.
Pinterits and Arntfield treated canola protein isolate with the transgutaminase
enzyme to enhance gelatination. Best gelation was obtained increasing the
amounts of protein and transglutaminase and maintaining the temperature close
to 40 . Gel strength was explained to cross-linking of subunits.
[3456]
According to Fereidoon Shahidi and colleagues 2008 canola protein hydrolysates
are antioxidants and were found to enhance water-holding capacity and cooking
yield in a meat model system.
Commercial enzymes Alkalase and Flavourzyme were used by the authors.
Flavourzyme presented the hydrolysates with the best antioxidant results and
the best cooking yield of meat compared with combination with Alcalasae, or
Alkalase alone.
The authors conclude that canola protein hydrolysates can be useful as
functional food ingredients, and stress that their potential application in
the food and feed industries depend on the composition of the hydrolysates.
[3457]
Shiyuan Dong studied the antioxidant
and biochemical properties of enzymatically hydrolysates silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) using Alkalase and Flavourzyme enzymes.
The hydrolysates presented improved solubility to above 75% over a wide pH
range and yellow colour when hydrolysis time was more than 3 hours.
The hydrolysates exhibited significant hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity
and inhibited linoleic acid peroxidation. Lower molecular weight hydrolysates
possessed stronger Fe
chelation ability. The authors concluded that the
antioxidant activity of silver carp protein hydrolysates were related to its
degree of hydrolysis, hydrolysis time and molecular weight.
Rojas and Brewer compared
the antioxidant effect of grape seed extract (0.01% and 0.02%), oleoresin
rosemary (0.02%) and water-soluble oregano extract (0.02%]. 2% of salt were
added in all samples. Oxidative and colour stability of cooked beef and pork
patties stored at 4 for 8 days.
The authors found that grape seed
extract resulted in the best antioxidant activity and appeared to reduce
visual green discolouration in beef patties.
The researchers concluded that grape seed extract at 0.02% has the
potential to reduce oxidative rancidity and improve shelf life of refrigerated
cooked beef and pork patties. [3458]
Brannan studied the effect of grape seed extract (0.1%) and NaCl (1%) in
ground chicken thigh meat during refrigerated storage at different relative
humidity.
He concluded that grape seed extract is an effective antioxidant in ground
chicken thigh meat that does not affect moisture content or pH during storage,
inhibits TBARS formation, helps to mitigate the prooxidative effects of NaCl,
and may alter the effect of NaCl on protein solubility in salted chicken
patties. [3459]
[3460]
Ian Thompson, in an article published in 2007 assessed non-antibiotic
strategies including the use of probiotics. His opinion is that only oral S.
boulardii should be used as an adjunct to the treatment of Clostridium
difficile associated diseases, although many institutions informally employ a
variety of commercially available live yoghurt preparations with unproven effects.
According to a meta-study of Lynne V. McFarland found Saccharomyces
boulardii, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, and probiotic mixtures significantly
reduced the development of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, but only S.
boulardii was effective for Clostridium difficile disease. [3461]
Thompson, however mentions the study of Hickson 2007 which calls for
Lactobacillus and Streptococcus yoghurt to reduce incidence C. difficile.
Mary Hickson and colleagues 2007 found in a study a probiotic drink
containing L casei, L bulgaricus, and S thermophilus to reduce the incidence
of antibiotic associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile associated
diarrhoea. This reduces morbidity, healthcare costs, and mortality if used
routinely in patients aged over 50. Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals
NHS Trust are providing probiotic yoghurt to patients on the wards to reduce
Clostridium difficile infection risk. [3462]
Lynne McFarland points out that the trial had several limitations, including
the fact that only a small proportion of hospitalized patients on antibiotics
were enrolled in it. [3463]
After the publication of a study revealing 24 deaths of acute pancreatitis which
were treated with probiotics, the Dutch Food and Consumer Product Safety
Authority (VWA) said there is no danger in taking probiotic dairy drinks but
will issue advices for vulnerable groups.
Probiotics are considered safe although endocarditis has been reported. Most
cases of systemic infection are due to Lactobacillus rhamnosus and
Lactobacillus casei. Thompson points to the problem of the use of probiotics
in the elderly patients as relatively immunocompromised and are also more
likely to have multiple comorbiditie such as cardiac valvular abnormalities
that make the administration of live organisms potentially risky.
[3460] [3461]
[3464]
C. difficile is a commensal bacterium of the human intestine in a minority of
the population. In small numbers it does not result in disease of any
significance. Antibiotics, especially those with a broad spectrum of activity,
cause disruption of normal intestinal flora, leading normal leading to an
overgrowth of C. difficile.
C. difficile flourishes under most antibiotics. It is transmitted from
person to person by the faecal-oral route. Because the organism forms
heat-resistant spores, it can remain in the hospital or nursing home
environment for long periods of time. It can be cultured from almost any
surface in the hospital.
Several disinfectants commonly used in hospitals may fail to kill the bacteria,
and may actually promote spore formation. However, disinfectants containing
bleach are effective in killing the organisms.
Soup, sauces, dressings or desserts
are also sold as powders which can be prepared by adding water. Emulsifiers
like sodium caseinate are use to stabilise the resulting emulsion.
[3465]
Ly and colleagues 2007 studied the effects of the surface properties of
lactic acid bacteria on the stability of model food emulsions such as the
oil/water emulsions stabilized by milk proteins (sodium caseinate, whey
proteins concentrate or whey proteins isolate) at different pH.
They found that important surface properties of bacteria strains are
hydrophobicity, Lewis acid/base and charge, and the characteristics of
emulsions such as pH and the concentration of cations present in media such as
calcium.
The authors conclude that the knowledge and choice of bacteria depending on their
surface properties could be one of the important factors to control the stability
of matrices such as fermentation media or fermented products.
[3466] Mai Huong Ly and colleagues studied the effect of bacterial
surface properties of Lactococcus lactis subsp lactis biovar diacetylactis
(LLD) on the stability of model emulsions. they stress that the stability of
emulsions or food matrixes, depend on physicochemical interactions, similar
to the attachment processes of microorganisms, through their surface
properties, to interfaces. Both sides can therefore interact.
The authors concluded that the effect of bacteria on the emulsion stability
depended on the strain which shows the importance of the choice of the
microorganism according to of the characteristics of the colloidal media to
obtain a stable system. In addition, these results suggest that the interactions
between and other food components can influence the position of bacteria
in food matrixes.
[3467]
Ly and colleagues studied the retention of two ethyl esters (ethyl acetate and
ethyl hexanoate) by two strains of lactic acid bacteria (Lactococcus lactis
subsp. lactis biov. diacetylactis) representing typical bacterial
macromolecule surface properties involved in the production of cheese.
The authors concluded that bacteria, through their surface physicochemical
properties, can interact directly with aroma compounds or in an indirect way, by
changing the emulsion characteristics. However, these effects depend on the
physicochemical properties of both aroma compounds and bacterial surfaces.
[3468]
According to Corrales and the anthocyanins from low cost grape by-products
may be extracted using new technologies such as heat treatment at 70
together with 600MPa high hydrostatic pressure, 3 kV
pulsed electric
fields and 35 Khz ultrasonics, reduces solvent and shortens extraction time.
The authors compared these methods with control extractions and found up to
four-fold higher antioxidant activity of the extracts. Anthocyanin
monoglucosides were better extracted by pulsed electric field, whereas the
acylated ones were extracted by high hydrostatic pressure.
[3469]
Serra and colleagues responding to a growing resistance to synthetic
preservatives such as BHA and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) and oleuropein as
antioxidant analysed the extracts of waste from olive oil and wine production.
They found that the extracts inhibited microbes like E.coli, S.poona,
B.cereus, S. cerevisiae and C.albicans more efficiently than standard
antioxidants such as quercetin, hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein. The active
compound of the extracts were phenolic compounds, such as 3400 milligram of
gallic acid equivalents per litre (GAE/L), compared to 400mgGAE/L in the olive
extract. Gram negative bacteria were more resistant to olive phenolics than
Gram positive strains.
The authors concluded that the natural grape extract and olive extract may be
used as natural preservative for foods.
Hydroxytyrosol from olives may enhance antioxidant stability of
fish products
[3470]
Hydroxytyrosol is the main antioxidant compound in olives and was found by Manuel
Pozos and colleagues 2008 to enhance the oxidative stability of bulk fish oil,
oil-in-water emulsions, and frozen minced fish muscle. Hydroxytyrosol is
therefore being suggested by the authors of the study, as a substitute for
synthetic preservatives such as butylhydroxyanisole (BHA) and
butylhydroxytoluene (BHT).
Fish, fish oil and fish product are very quickly oxidized and develop fishy and
rancid smell and taste due to a high content of unsatirated bond of their fatty
acids. Tha authors recommend a concentration of 50 ppm of hydroxytyrosol to
potect R-tocopherol (approximately 300 micrograms per gram of fat), and both 50
and 100 ppm of hydroxytyrosol to preserve completely omega-3 PUFAs
[3471]
Pomegranate peels, an agricultural waste, was assessed by Iqbal Shahid and
colleagues as an antioxidant source. Methanolic extract was found to be
highest in yield. The authors found that 800-850 ppm of pomegranate peels
extract to be as efficiency as the synthetic antioxidants BHT at its legal
limit. In this study weight gain, antioxidant activity index, peroxide value,
and thiobarbituric acid reactivesubstances were analysed as parameters of the
stability of sunflower oil under test.
Important antioxidants of pomegranate are ellagitannin compounds like
punicalagins and punicalins which are behind the reported health benefits such
as heart health, prostate cancer risc reduction and slowing cartilage loss in
arthritis.
The authors concluded that extracts from pomegranate peels to be a potent
antioxidant for the stabilization of sunflower oil.
[3472]
Efficacy of methanolic garlic extract in stabilizing sunflower oil were
studied by Iqbal and Bhanger. The authors evaluated the effectiveness of
garlic in stabilising sunflower oil taking as parameters weight gain,
antioxidant activity index, free fatty acid content, peroxide value,
conjugated dienes, conjugated trienes and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances.
They concluded that garlic is a potent antioxidant for stabilization of sunflower oil.
[3473]
The antioxidant activities of the methanol extracts of selected varieties and
parts of garlic and onion were studied by Anna Maria Nuutila and colleagues
using two methods: inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced by tert-butyl
hydroperoxide in isolated rat hepatocytes and scavenging activity against
diphenylpicrylhydrazyl radical.
According to the authors the radical scavenging method had more benefits
compared to the lipid peroxidation method, being easier, cheaper, more
specific and reproducible, and also correlated positively with the total
phenolics of the extracts.
The researchers concluded that onions had clearly higher radical scavenging
activities than garlic, red onion being more active than yellow onion, and the
skin extracts of onion possessed the highest activities.
[3474]
The antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of equivalent concentrations of
fresh garlic, garlic powder and garlic oil were investigated against lipid
oxidation and microbial growth in raw chicken sausage during storage at
3. Fresh garlic and garlic powder were found to have high antioxidant
activity and significantly reduce aerobic plate count extending the
shelf-life of the product to 21 days.
The authors concluded that. fresh garlic and garlic powder, through their
combined antioxidant and antimicrobial effects, are potentially useful in
preserving meat products.
[3476]
According to Ignacio Rodriguez-Gacia and Jose Luis Guil-Guerrero the
antioxidant activity of the microalgal ethanolic extracts of Chlorella
vulgaris was higher than that of Porphyridium cruentum, of Phaeodactylum
tricornutum , of BHA and BHT.
Other sources of natural antioxidants may include the extracts from
Porphyridium cruentum, Phaeodactylum tricornutum.
The authors concluded in this study that Chlorella vulgaris may be an
important source of natural antioxidants, as an alternative to higher plants
or the production by chemical synthesis.
[3475]
Onion wastes are not suitable for fodder, or landfill disposal due to the rapid
growth of phytopathogens , the white rot mould (Sclerotium cepivorum Berk)
[1476]. Onion waste is therefore an environmental
problem. Roldán and colleagues 2008 analysing the problem found that this
waste could be used in the production of a paste with high antioxidant and
anti-browning effects.
The frozen paste of the Recas onions contained total quercetin content of
4431 mg per 100 grams of dry weight. Pasteurisation reduced quercentine down
to 721 mg per 100 grams of dry weight.
The authors suggest to use waste of the Reca onion variety and apply mild pasteurisation
to obtain a stabilised onion by-product paste with good antioxidant
properties which could be used as functional food ingredient.
[1488]
A variety of n-3 PUFA enriched functional food emulsions have been placed on
market. To retard oxidation EDTA, tocopherols (vitamin E), ascorbic acid
(vitamin C), lactoferrin, gallic acid, and some plant extracts such as
oregano and rosemary extracts, and chardonnay grape and raspberry extract are being used.
Charlotte Jacobsen and colleagues 2008 studied the ability of antioxidants to
prevent lipid oxidation in food emulsions in general and in functional food
systems enriched with n-3 PUFA in particular. They found that the same
antioxidant exerts different effects in different systems such as milk, milk
drink, salad dressing, mayonnaise and other emulsions, in some cases they may
even exert opposite effects on peroxide levels and on formation of individual
volatiles and fishy odour and flavours.
EDTA was found to be efficient in salad dressing and mayonnaise, but not in
milk, which can protected against oxidation by ascorbyl palmitate. The authors
recommend to evaluate the effects of antioxidants by more than one method.
[1490]
The Panel of the EFSA considered the use of rosemary extracts derived from
Rosmarinus officinalis L. as a food additive.
The extracts
were:
- F62: rosemary extract produced from dried rosemary leaves by acetone
extraction,
- D74: rosemary extract prepared by extraction of dried rosemary leaves by
means of supercritical carbon dioxide.
- AR: rosemary extract prepared from a partially deodorised ethanolic extract
of rosemary.
- ARD: extract prepared from a deodorised ethanolic extract of rosemary.
- RES: extract which is a decolourised and deodorised rosemary extract
obtained by a two-step extraction using hexane and ethanol.
Four rosemary extracts, D74, AR, ARD, and RES, were tested for genotoxicity.
Several in vitro genotoxicity studies were performed in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic test systems and an in vivo mouse micronucleus test performed with
rosemary extract RES. The Panel concluded that these do not give rise to
safety concerns with respect to genotoxicity of the rosemary extracts.
Based on the margins of safety identified, the Panel concluded that the use of
rosemary extracts at the proposed uses and use levels would not be of safety
concern.
[1489]
[1491]
According to a study of Mirela Kopjar and colleagues 2007 and another study
by Komes and colleagues 2006, improvements were achieved in colour and aroma
levels during the production of commercial strawberry cream fillings, peer
purree or peer cubes adding trehalose and using freeze drying compared with
the standard method of heat evaporation trehalose also had a positive effect
on the levels of fruity esters.
Trehalose is a dissaccharide sugar found in mushrooms, honey,
lobster and shrimp. Together with the freeze-drying technique trehalose enhanced the
colour the taste and anthocyanin content of the final product. A better
rehydration was observed in dried products using trehalose.
The authors concluded that aroma compounds retention depends not only on the
process selected, but also on the structure of the aroma compounds. The degree
of retention depends on the complexity of the food matrix and interactions
within its components, such as trehalose. The authors packed the strawberry
cream fillings in air and nitrogen atmosphere, and stored for 5 months at room
temperature and noted that trehalose and packaging atmosphere influenced
colour, aroma and texture.
[1492]
Conrad and colleagues 2000 developed an alfa, alfa-trehalose -borate system
to protect Lactobacillus acidophilus during freeze- and vacuum-drying.
The authors stress that the presence of borate can dramatically enhance the
protective ability of trehalose and greatly improves the recovery of
freeze-dried or vacuum-dried viable
cells after storage at 37 and room temperatures respectively.
The authors report that a buffering strategy was tested to counteract the
high pH resulting from the addition of borate to the mixture. Use of citric or
lactic acids in combination with ammonium hydroxide in this strategy enhanced
cell survival.
The authors point to possibility to protect more labile species during
dehydration.
Depending on the structure of the process being in use at the factory the
recommendations of JECFA may be followed:
Prepare press juice of beet roots, or make an aqueous
extraction of shredded beet roots, (however, the more water is used energy to
dehydrate will be higher). Solid leftover should go to further sugar
extraction.
Remove sediments by filtering or by centrifugation
depending on the available equipment. Best is centrifugation.
Be aware that iron ions are deadly for the product, so all metal which comes in
contact ( Water used for the process must be as low on iron as possible. The
washing machine, the shredderer, the press and the vacuum dehydrator must be of
excellent rust free steel as leeching iron ions from rusty parts destabilize the
colour during processing and storage.)
The liquid goes
to concentration by heat not over 75 under vacuum equipment.
Concentrate up to 32 BRIX or higher.
Food grade acids (e.g.,
citric, lactic, L-ascorbic) should be added as pH 3.5 controlling agents and
stabilizers and carriers (e.g., maltodextrin )may be added as aids for
manufacturing dry powders.
Good quality is the bluish
product, meanwhile red/yellowish variety is unstable and discolours ending in
brown colour in coloured foods, reducing the shelf life.
Plastic drums
Useful purity and nitrate tests of the
final product are found in the JECFA document [1493]
To dry juice down to powder requires freeze spray
freezing equipment, or spray drier.
[1494]
Rutherfurd
and Moughan 2008 evaluated the effects of storage at elevated temperatures on
reactive Lysine content and true ileal reactive Lysine digestibility in skim
milk powder and hydrolyzed-lactose skim milk powder.
The authors report a decrease of digestible reactive (available) Lys content
for skim milk powder by more than 20% stored at 30 and 35 for 18
month, and 40% when stored at 40 for 12 month. For hydrolyzed-lactose
skim milk powder available Lysine decreased by 41% when stored at 30
for only 18 month and 34 and 65% when stored at 35 and 40, respectively,
for 6 month.
The authors concluded that elevated temperatures and prolonged storage periods
negatively influenced the available Lys contents of both milk powders. These
findings may be important for storage and handling of milk powder in developing
countries where storage temperature of 
40 are usual.
[1495]
Farahnaky and colleagues 2008 from the University Shiraz, Iran, studied the
possibility of using the tomato peel waste resulting
from tomato processing industry as a thickening agent for ketchup producers. The
authors say that low level of tomato pulp powder may be used to replace
hydrocolloids such as guar gum, xanthan gum and locust bean gum. The tomato pulp
powder has a low price and avoids discarding environment issues.
[532]
Yamazaki and colleagues using an ammonium sulphate fractionation
technique extracted the hydrocolloid from leaves of Corchorus olitorius, a
relative of jute. The yield of the hydrocolloid was 6.0%
The authors concluded that a new hydrocolloid may be won from this Egyptian
Weed, and may become a substitute for locust bean gum.
[1496]
Methanolic extracts of rice bran were found to be the richest in phenolics
than other extraction media. Bhager and colleagues 2008 report that this
extract could be used instead of synthetic anioxidants to stabilise cookies.
Peroxide value, iodine value and free fatty acids were chosen as the
parameters for quality evaluation of the cookies used in the study.
According to the authors the consumers look for healthy, natural and organic
ingredients, as well as smaller portion sizes.
[1497]
According to Ellis and Jacquier 2008 agarose microparticles from red seaweed
Gracilaria rhodophyta may became a low-cost fat replacer or as
micro-encapsulation vehicles for functional ingredient. The researchers found
that shearing bulk gels dispersed in cold water using a high speed
rotor/stator device an average particle size of about 100 micrometres were obtained.
The authors stress that these small particles may be incorporated into a food
product as a bulking agent and texture modifiers for a wide range of beverages.
They concluded that the simple and low-cost procedure to produce an array of
agarose microparticles may be used to improve textural functionalities to
beverages
[1498]
Manfred Gössinger and colleagues 2008 studied the effect of processing steps
on the colour stability and the anthocyanin content of nectars made from
strawberry puree, using frozen strawberries, influence of processing
temperature 10 vs. 20, sieving, pH reduction and storage
temperature 20 vs. 4.
The authors found that frozen strawberries improved the colour stability of the
nectar of strawberry with a shelf-life of up to 12 months without any additives
with increased half-life of anthocyanin monomers. Reduced content of
anthocyanins were found using higher processing temperature after
pasteurisation, as well as the reduction of the pH value during processing on the
colour and the content of anthocyanin monomers. Sieving had no significant effect
on colour stability and the content of anthocyanin monomers. Storage temperature
had a strong impact on colour stability and degradation of anthocyanin monomers.
Storage at 4 kept the nectar colour acceptable over even more than 12
months. They stress that compared to frozen strawberries stored at -80,
frozen strawberries stored at -18 had a lower activity of
polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) of about 53% and 22%,
respectively.
[1499]
Young, Ioannidis and Al-Ubaydli 2008, looking at the current system of
publication in biomedical research, found a distorted view of the reality of
scientific data. The authors applied principles from the field of economics.
They concluded that only a small number of results are published, retarding
the self-correcting mechanism by the imbalance between the abundance of
results and the limited number of publications, caused by the costs of
printing and a belief that selectivity is equivalent to quality.
The current system of small number of publications favours a prescience which
leads highly unpredictable future of the content of the publication. The authors
call to reconsider how scientific data are judged and disseminated.
OurFood (c) 1998 - 2010 by Karl Heinz Wilm - Imprint (Impressum)