- Beta-glucan in food applications

Food Processing Innovations

Beta-glucan in food applications

[1705]
A preparation of beta-glucan, obtained from spent brewer's yeast, was evaluated for potential food applications. This material was autolysed and the cell walls that were obtained were homogenized, extracted firstly with alkali, then with acid, and then spray dried.

Fragmentation of the cell walls during homogenization is regarded responsible for higher viscosity by Saowanee Thammakiti and colleagues. The beta-glucan obtained in this way had higher properties as compared with commercial β-glucan from baker's yeast.

The authors suggest that beta-glucan obtained from brewer's yeast can be used in food products as a thickening, water-holding, or oil-binding agent and emulsifying stabilizer.

Empty yeast cells to carry hydrophobic flavours [1706]
Infusion of flavours into empty yeast cells is being developed by Gregory Dardelle and coleagues. The researchers say that loaded yeasts stay longer in mouth than conventional spray dry powder. This is due to adhesive properties of yeast cells, which are thermally stable up to 240 $^{0}$ C. Dardelle reports that the passive loading technique, achieved by infusion, is limited to hydrophobic flavours such as limonene. The release of flavour does not occur in pure fat, Only water can open the external shell structure.

Beta-glucan as fat replacer in mayonnaise [1707]
Application of beta-glucan prepared from spent brewer's yeast as a fat replacer in mayonnaise was studied by Worrasinchai, and colleagues Fat was partially substituted by beta-glucan at levels of 25, 50, and 75% achieving higher storage stability than full fat mayonnaise with acceptable sensory with beta-glucan not more than 50%. The authors conclude that spent brewer's yeast beta-glucan may be used as a fat replacer in mayonnaise.

Tapioca-based ingredient replaces butter:

Ingredients firms in Europe have created healthy alternatives such as powdered tapioca starch that can replace 50% to 97% butter in bakery products. Other new ingredients based on lauric acid enable the production of low caloric whips, others reduce egg and fat content of cakes.

Carotinoids as coulorants in beta-glucan mayonnaise [1708]
Rujirat Santipanichwong and Manop Suphantharika studied the application of carotenoids beta-carotene and lutein, as natural colourants in reduced-fat mayonnaise with 50% substitution of oil using spent brewer's yeast beta-glucan as a fat replacer.

Lutein was found to destabilize the emulsion resulting in significant variation of the oil droplet size during storage and a spontaneous reduction of the viscoelastic properties.

Beta-carotene, however, did not change the stability of the emulsion. The authors concluded that the addition of these colourants in the concentration range tested seemed to have no effect on the textural properties of reduced-fat mayonnaise.

Honey as antioxidant

Red beete and honey in fortified milk products

[1709]
The effect of beet and honey on quality attributes and carotene retention of carrot fortified milk product during storage at 30 $^{0}$ C for 10 days were studied. The study showed in overall that addition of equal mixture of beet and honey along with carrot is effective for quality improvement and carotene retention of carrot fortified milk product.

Caroteen preservation in food is necessary to ensure a stable amount of carotene during storage. Among the carotenoids, beta-carotene theoretically possesses 100% vitamin A activity while alfa-carotene possesses between 53% , and is an excellent source of vitamins B and C as well as calcium pectate, an extraordinary pectin fiber that has been found to have cholesterol-lowering properties Several studies have stated that red beet root (Beta vulgaris) is a good source of natural antioxidant addition of 1:1 mixture of beet and honey along with carrot is effective for quality improvement and carotene retention of carrot fortified milk product.

Natural antioxidants in dairy dessert

[1710] Bandyopadhyay and colleagues studied the effect of natural sources of antioxidant of beet (Beta vulgaris), mint (Mentha spicata L.) and ginger (Zingiber officinale L.) in sandesh (a heat desiccated product of coagulated milk protein mass called chhana which is similar to cottage cheese). The authors found that although ginger had the highest antioxidant activity but mint showed better effectiveness in the inhibition of lipid oxidation. The authors concluded that regarding antioxidant activity and lipid oxidation, combination of mint or ginger with beet showed better result as compared to beet alone.

Amino acid content of honey and antioxidant activity of honey

[1711] Studying several honey samples from Burkina Faso Meda and colleagues found that the correlation between radical scavenging activity and proline content was higher than that for total phenolic compounds. The authors suggest that the amino acid content of honey should be considered more frequently when determining its antioxidant activity.

Antioxidative and radical scavenging propertzies of phenoliuc content of honey

[1712] Aljadi and Kamaruddin studied the antioxidant activity of Malaysian honeys. The authors found that the characteristic antioxidant activities showed a marked correlation with the total phenolic contents. The authors concluded that honey has antioxidative and radical scavenging properties, which are mainly due to its phenolic content.

Variation in antioxidant properties and phenolic compounds in honey

[1713]
Baltrusaityte and colleagues found that all Lithuania honey and beebread phenolic extracts were able to scavenge free radicals, however their scavenging activity varied in a wide range, on average between 43.0% and 95.7%. and all samples contain para-coumaric acid, kaempferol, chrysin and apigenin. The authors concluded that remarkable variations in antioxidant properties and content of phenolic compounds in honey from different sources should be considered in using honey as a source of natural dietary antioxidants.

Chitosan as encapsulating agent [2017]
Chitosan used to encapsulate ingredients has improved stability to thermal processing, lipid oxidation, freezing and thawing. It is one of the few food-grade polymers to have a positive charge across a wide pH range and can be used in an electrostatic layer-by-layer deposition method to encapsulate negatively charged particles.

Chitosan is alkaline deacetylated chitin (poly-b-1,4-D-N-acetylglucosamine). Chitin is produced from shellfish and seafood waste, like shells from crustaceans such as shrimps, crabs, lobsters and krills. Chitin is deacetilated to chitosan by boiling it for several hours in a 50% w/v alkali solution.

Chitosan microencapsulation and bioavailiability [2018]
Foregoing studies indicated that chitosan inhibits in vitro digestibility of lipids.

Yeonhwa Park and colleagues in a study using rats, suggest that encapsulation of lipids by chitosan does not inhibit their in vivo digestibility. The researchers conclude that it should be possible to use chitosan to microencapsulate lipids and lipid-soluble components such as omega-3s or fat-soluble ingredients like certain vitamins without compromising their bioavailability. According to the authors human studies should confirm this.

Encapsulation of flavonols helps to improve functional beverages

[2019]
Lucas-Abellán and colleagues 2008 found that the encapsulation of flavonols quercetin and myricetin, in beta-cyclodextrin improved the dissolution and the bioavailability of quercetin and myricetin in functional beverages. These compounds were linked to the inhibition of lipid oxidation, improving heart health. Tapioca (Cassava) starch as microencapsulating agent [2020]
Microencapsulation technologies are developed using gums arabic, hydrolyzed starches, emulsifying starches whey proteins, sodium caseinate, and gelatin to avoid commodification, changing prices and cope with new consumer demands.

Jarunee Loksuwan and colleagues from the Thammasat University in Thailand found in a study in 2006 that acid-modified tapioca starch had better spray dried encapsulating properties than native starch and maltodextrin. Suphuric acid was used for the hydrolisation, and neutralisation with sodium carbonate prior to steam pressure treatment.

Microencapsulation of fish oil using sugar beet pectin and spray-drying [2021]
Stephan Drusch from the University of Kiel microencapsulated 20% and 50% fish oil in a matrix of 2,2% sugar beet pectin and glucose syrup obtaioning a good oxidative stability.

The authors found that the proportion of non-encapsulated fat was higher in samples with 50% oil compared to samples with 20% oil and may limit the maximum oil load of the microcapsules.

New microencapsulation to improve probiotic foods

[2022]
Annan, Borza and Truelstrup Hansen encapsulated probiotic bacteria Bifidobacterium adolescentis 15703Tin alginate-coated gelatin microspheres to enhance their survival in adverse conditions of the gastro-intestinal tract. The Gelatin microspheres were cross-linked with the non-cytotoxic genipin and coated with alginate cross-linked by calcium ions from external or internal sources. An improved survival of up to 16 per cent was achieved.
The authors concluded that this novel microencapsulation method protects probiotic bifidobacteria during exposure to adverse environmental conditions. This technology may improve existing probiotic foods.

Transport of fruits, vegetables and fresh products under controlled atmosphere

Long transports of vegetables, fruits and other perishable products should be made under controlled atmosphere with following composition [541]:
Atmosphere containing minimum of 95% CO $_{2}$
It should contain at maximum 2% of oxygen. The humidity of the atmosphere should be 95%. It is possible to get the CO $_{2}$ from air compressing it and getting the CO $_{2}$ using a special selective membrane. To cary bottles of CO $_{2}$ is also possible. Under these conditions the amount of bacteria decreased in a period of 10 days from 200 millions to about 96% on salads. Anaerobic bacteria must however be controlled carefully.

Avoiding poison in containers

The Asian Longhorned Beetle ALB (Anoplophora glabripennis) is an invasive beetle which menaces trees It has spread from Asia to US and was found in Braunau am Inn (Germany) and in Austria. [2068]

Experts fear that the beetle is still being imported among pallets and other wooden packagings.

Professor Jens-Georg Unger says that only 150 out of 300 000 Chinese containers pass phytosanitary control each year. [2069] [2070]

The brown spruce longhorn beetle (BSLB), Tetropium fuscum (Fabr.), is native to Europe but has recently been discovered in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where efforts are under way to eradicate it.

Heat treatment To avoid export of BSLB phytosanitary measure heat treatment 50 $^{0}$ C for 30 minutes (or 55 $^{0}$ C for 15 minutes) to ensure 100% mortality is being proposed by Lisa Mushrow and colleagues. [2071]

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations calls for 56 $^{0}$ C and 30 minutes of heat treatment to kill wood beetles. [2072]

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency in its directive "Canadian Heat-treated Wood Products Certification Program (CHTWPCP) for Export" demands for heat treatment of 56 $^{0}$ C/30 minutes to ensure BSLB-free wood. [2073]

Fumigation Heat treatment is expensive, reinfestation can occur and most of the cargo does not allow heating.

Fumigation of the loaded container is now being used, such as disinfectants, flammable gasses, carbon monoxide (CO), phosphine, bromoethane (ethyl bromide), 1,2 Dichlorethane, Chloropicrin, sulfuryl fluoride.

Some fumigants are applied as solid or liquid formulations from which the toxic gases emanate: methyl bromide [2075], sulfuryl fluoride (Vikane), formaldehyde, chloropicrin or phosphine. Solid formulations like aluminium phosphide or magnesium phosphide are widely used because they can release phosphine. Methyl bromide, phosphine producing materials, chloropicrin and sulfuryl fluoride are most commonly used. Solid formulations are in tablets, plates, strips, and blankets or sleeves. [2076]

Important recommendations are:

Recommendations on the Safe Use of Pesticides in Ships, and its amendments [2074] [2077]
International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, Class 9, UN no. 3359. The Code demands for approved warning sign affixed to the access door identifying the type and amount of fumigant used and the date and time of fumigation. [2078]

Even cholpicrin, a deadly gas used in World War I has been found by health officials in containers to be unloaded in Hamburg (Germany). Veldman, a n experts from the harbour of Rotterdam, says that the number of fumigated containers has grown five fold. Toxic remnants are found in foods like rice or crackers, in toys, textiles and others. [2079]

Alternatives to poison fumigation Fumigation with carbon dioxide (CO2) displaces oxygen and asphyxiate living vermin. However it does not kill eggs and is at odds with the environment. Eggs can produce larvae and reinfestation takes place.

Nitrogen from air kills all insects, pupae larvae and eggs. This technology is friendly to environment because nitrogen is pumped from air. It can be used at warehouses, silos, for bulk cargo, and containers. There is no danger for the personal and it does not contaminate food because it is part of the air we breath. This technology was developed in Germany. [2080]

The function of trehalose during dehydration [2081]
Job Ubbink and colleagues studied the free volume in trehalose demonstrating that changes in free volume are intimately connected with molecular organization and mobility of water in the crystalline and amorphous states.

The study proposes a mechanism for bioprotection for the survival of (micro) organisms under conditions of extreme temperature or dehydration, like baker's yeast which can be successively dehydrated and rehydrated without losing their viability. It is believed that during dehydration, baker's yeast produces high levels of trehalose, a key factor in biopreservation.

According to the authors, organisms, under extreme drought, form an intracellular carbohydrate glass This glass state has high viscosity and hydrogen-bonding interactions and stabilizes and protects the integrity of complex biological structures and molecules.

Trehalose as ingredient for dehydrated fruit products [2082]
Komes, Drazenka and colleagues found in a study that the best retention of aroma compounds in dehydrated pear purees was noticed in the case when freeze drying and trehalose addition were combined. In dehydrated pear cubes, previously dipped in trehalose solution, the highest aroma retention was also determined.

This study showed possible application of trehalose as potentially beneficial food ingredient, with the aim to improve the quality of dehydrated fruit products, especially their aroma, and to produce superior dried fruit products or ingredients, which are widely used in food formulation.

The authors suggest that glass transformation properties of the material change from a crystalline (glass) to a liquid could prevent the loss of small volatile compounds such as esters during drying and storage. Volatiles are encapsulated in the amorphous glass and low mobility leading to the increased stability of the material being preserved. Above the glassy state, temperature collapses and sometimes crystallization takes place… and the encapsulated volatiles are released.

New RTDS non-GM plant breedings technology for sorghum, rice and canola [2083]
According to Cibus, the Rapid Trait Development System RTDS process, is known as directed mutagenesis. It works through the cell's natural process of gene repair. Every time a cell copies DNA, it makes "scrivener" errors or spelling mistakes.

These variations happen all the time, which is how natural variation occurs. Cibus' technology harnesses the cell's own natural DNA repair machinery to correct such spelling mistakes, thus directing DNA repair enzymes to correct and repair the targeted gene in a specific way in order to produce a desired trait. No foreign DNA is incorporated into the organism and no Marker Assisted Selection is used.

Gene expressing saturated fatty acids [2084]
John Shanklin and colleagues found that the gene beta-Ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) synthase II (KASII) elongates 16:0-ACP to 18:0-ACP in the plastid, where it competes with three other enzymes at the first major branch point in fatty acid biosynthesis.

The authors conclude that early embryo development appears sensitive to elevated 16:0, whereas at later stages, up to 53% of 16:0, i.e., a 7-fold increase over wild-type levels, is tolerated. According to the authors, the role of KASII in seed metabolism are herewith explained. They say that the modulation of Arabidopsis KASII levels is sufficient to convert its temperate oilseed composition to that of a palm-like tropical oil.

This knowledge may lead to transform oilseed plants growing in moderate climate to produce palm oil similar fats which do not require hydrogenation and are thus free of trans-fatty acids. This could reduce the pressure on palm oil plantations.

Renewable fuel

USA and Biofuel
USA, trying to boost farming started many projects . National Renewable Energy Laboratory claims that the production of ethanol from US corn has already reached the volume of the Brazilian production. [2085]

The City of Portland, Oregon issued the Biofuel Requirements act, demanding that in the City of Portland, on and after July 1, 2007 all diesel fuel shall contain 5% biodiesel (B5 fuel) and on and after September 16, 2007, all gasoline shall contain a minimum blend of 10% ethanol (E10 fuel), Biodiesel for this act is produced from used cooking oil and/or feedstock from the Genera Brassica (rape, mustard), Caina, Helianthus (sunflower) or Carthamus (safflower). Palmoil is excluded from this issue. [1638]

The sustainability of corn farming in the US corn belt [2086] Tad Patzek, from the University of California looks at the thermodynamics of the corn-ethanol biofuel cycle in 2004. He concludes that the minimum cumulative energy consumption in restoring the environment polluted and depleted by the industrial corn-ethanol cycle is over 7 times higher than the maximum shaft work of a car engine burning the cycle's ethanol.

The industrial corn cycle is not renewable, and is unsustainable by a wide margin. The limiting factors, nutrient-rich humus and water that carries the dissolved nutrients to plant roots are augmented by chemicals obtained in the linear, irreversible fossil fuel-based processes. Corn yields demand continuously increases in fertilization rate of corn fields.

He calls the annual corn-ethanol biofuel production a human assault on geologic processes and the geologic time scale.

Ethanol became the salvation for Midwest corn growers struggling to make ends meet with a saturated market and slumping prices. U.S. ethanol production is rising dramatically, thanks to generous corn subsidies, American soils have been depleted for like 50 years or something. The only reason we can get any good yeilds out of them is through massive fertilization. Fertilizer that we synthesize using gasoline. It's very inefficient to use the new bio-fuels, as they ultimately require more fossil fuels to produce than energy they yields. [2087] [2088]

Bio fuel worldwide
Sugar cane: Sugar cane grows in regions with abundant rain all the year round growing season, cheap land and not expensive labour. The product can be sold as sugar or as alcohol according to the demands of the market.

The Unicamp University study shows that with no clearing of rain forests there are 2.5E8 hectares of reasonbly level land in Brazil with soil, rain, truck access, etc. for mechanical cultivation of sugar cane. Also there is great potential in enzimatic hydrolysis for efficiency improvement of the conversion.

Germans pep up the Burger, the new European gourmet feeling contributes to revolutionize fast food!
Wener Theurich, German editor of Spiegel Online, calls for a gourmet movement to pep up the Burger. "Rome-Burger" as he calls it, has a genial recipe:

Werner Theurich's Rome Burger:

125 g lean meat is cut in very fine stripes, seasoned with salt, fresh grounded pepper and fried.
60 g fresh rasped Italian Provolone or Swiss Greyerzer is added and heated until everything sticks together in form of a disc.
Hamburger bread or a small baguette is cut and light-brown under a grill. Put the meat/cheese between the halves of the bread, joined with onion rings or cubes which had been glazed by heating it in butter.

The gourmet-guru Theurich recommends to serve Rome Burger with a French vin du pays, such as from Minervois or from the Rhone.

Sounds good, but please don't change any ingredients as the fine gourmet feeling will be lost and you will have an ordinary everyday Burger.

The whole revolutionary fast food story in the German edition of Spiegel Online, together with the picture of the author and of the Rome Burger you find at
http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,444478,00.html

New applications for protein from pea and soy in texturised foodstuffs [2089]
According to Christian Schäfer and colleagues vegetable protein is a valuable alternative to animal proteins in texturised foodstuffs, but has poor gelling properties.

Using a microbial transglutaminase to build isopeptide bonds cross-linking the proteins, improved the gel characteristics from protein of pea and soy. With the use of microbial transglutaminase so as being suggested by the authors, leguminous protein may become an alternative to animal protein in the production of texturised foodstuffs.
Applications of pea protein in processed meat and poultry products Pea protein is commercialy available. It is purified and highly digestible due to the elimination of anti-nutritional factors during the manufactoring process. Pea protein is not on the list of major allergens which require warning labelling. I offers excellent water-lipid linking and emulsing qualities which stabilizes the product during cooking.

In concentration of 0,5% to 3% pea protein can be used in minced meat and meat substitutes where it stabilzes the structure and limits the loss of water, particularly in the case of frozen foodstuffs. In reconstituted meat and prepared food pea protein increases the succulence of food even when it is re-heated. It is also being used in marinades.

New starter cultures for better yoghurt and cheese

[2090]
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), together with associated cas genes, provided resistance against phages, and resistance specificity is determined by spacer-phage sequence similarity.

This knowledge opens the way to modify the genetic structure of starter cultures for more resistance to the attack of bacteriophages. Food industry, mainly dairy production, depends on bacterial cultures which sometimes are changed or killed by these bacterial viruses.

According Philippe Horvath and colleagues working for Danisco and Nestlé, the findings of this research will enable researchers to select bacteria which have developed natural resistance against the bacteriophages. New starter cultures may thus be selected without artificial genetic modification of the bacteria and may present high resistance to bacteriophages.

Phytosterol effects on dairy microflora

[2092]
Phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol are added in functional foods based on milk or yoghurt for their ability to reduce serum cholesterol. Blank and colleagues 2008 studied antimicrobial proprieties of these compounds in milk and yoghurt starter cultures.

They found that the tested commercial phytosterol had no effect on the growth of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus from yoghurt cultures, nor did it influence the growth of the spoilers Pseudomonas, Saccaromyces cerevisiae and Aspergillus ochraceous. However, when stearoyl lactylate, a dispersing agent, was added, growth of Lactobacillus and Strepotococcus bulgaricus was affected. Pseudomonas was not affected by the commercial dispersible phytosterol preparation.

The synergistic effect of Phytosterol and stearoyl lactylate should be considered when used in these products.

New process for texturizing whey protein isolate (WPI)

New products incorporating WPI, such as sports drinks are being developed, however, inclusion of WPI in sufficient amounts to boost the nutritional profile of extruded foods and snacks is difficult.

Onwulata 2004 extruded WPI in a twin screw extruder at about 40% moisture content and 100 $^{o}$ C. He found that WPI texturized by extrusion at different pH values produced stringy products, showing that texturized WPI ingredients with defined functionality can be created. He concluded that these products have potential as ingredients to boost protein contents of products ranging from extruded snacks to meat analogs. [2091]

Ingredients with new functionalities were proposed for whey protein concentrates (WPC) and isolates (WPI) by Onwulata and colleagues (2003) in order to increase their utilization. They described extrusion of WPC, WPI, and whey albumin (WA) in a twin screw extruder To improve the nutritional profile of crunchy snack foods, whey proteins, whey protein isolate (WPI), whey protein concentrates (WPC), or whey albumin (WLA) , concentrated forms of whey, were extruded with corn meal.

It was determined that addition of WPI adversely affected the crunchiness, color, and texture of extruded snack foods. They found that all gel strength were lost after 75 degrees C. Denaturation at these melt temperatures had minimal effect on foaming. Similar results were obtained for extruded WPC and WA. Varying melt temperature at the extruder die allowed a controlled rate of denaturation of texturized ingredient with a predetermined functionality. [2093]

Health snack products, using extrusion technology, that includes whey proteins and low-glycemic starches such as cassava, cashew pulp, and barley as alternate sources of starch are being developed by Onwulata and colleagues. [2094]

Addition of Calcium to modified whey protein concentrate (mWPC) leads to enhanced properties of the product

[2095]
Whey and lactose products in functional foods are used to increase added value to the product. Debra Clare and colleagues studied the inclusion of calcium into whey protein concentrates solutions and powders.

The addition of calcium improved the functionality characteristics under pH 3,35 extended heat treatment, gelation, and spray drying. In solution adding calcium increased the thickening capacity, especially under refrigeration temperatures, and doubling of the water-holding capacity of bound or unfreezeable water of the solution was also observed.

Tara gum improves gelling of whey protein

[2096]
The tara gum E417, a galactomanan of the endosperm of the seeds of the tara tree (Cesalpinia spinosa lin), is used to boost the gelling activity of agar and carrageenanwas.

This gum was now found in 2007 by Sittikijyothin, Sampaio and Goncalves to affect the rate of gelation of beta-lactoglobulin with gels formed under heat of 80 $^{o}$ C at lower pH (pH4.6) being stronger than the gels formed at neutral pH. This is important, as many food formulations are heated in an acidic environment.

The authors say that the addition of non-gelling tara gum affected the heat-set gelation behaviour of a solution of beta-lactoglobulin which is considered to be the primary gelling agent of whey.

Antimicrobial silver as antimicrobial agent in packaging materials

[2097]
To increase shelf life of food products a line of styrene copolymers using silver-based antimicrobial ingredients from Agion were developed by BASF providing continuous protection from microbes by releasing silver ions to the surface of the product at a slow and steady rate.

Silver is already being incorporated in plastics, such as used in refrigerators, water filtration, cutting boards, cellphones, keyboard and clinical devices turning the surfaces self sanitising.

Cheese coating with silver ions

[2098]
According Ag POLYMER an antimicrobial cheese polymer coating with silver-ion zeolite ist intended to coat cheese and protect it from microbes in the European dairy industry.

Agion's silver antimicrobial ingredient has been approved for food and water contact by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Food Safety Agency.It is a notified existing substance under the EU's directive European Biocidal Products Directive (BPD) and listed for use as an indirect food contact substance with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). [2099]

Protein and vaccines from methane from the North Sea fields

[2100]
The Norway company Norferm in Tiedbergodden expands its capacity 8 000 to 40 000 t/year of bioprotein using methane gas from Heidrun field in the Norwegian Sea as raw ware.

The BioProtein from Norferm is produced by fermentation of methane, oxygen, ammonia and minerals together with methanotrophic bacteria Methylococcus capsulatus. The resulting product contains 70 % of crude protein and can be used as feed for chicken, swine, pets an fish. [2101]

The University of Bergen, together with Norferm developed the technology of the fermenter of methane. Other projects are running to bring Methylocuccus capsulatus to produce oral vaccines. []

Methane a greenhouse gas

[2103]
Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas that remains in the atmosphere for approximately 9-15 years. Methane is over 20 times more effective in trapping heat in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide (CO2) over a 100-year period and is emitted from a variety of natural and human-influenced sources. Human-influenced sources include landfills, natural gas and petroleum systems,agricultural activities, coal mining, stationary and mobile combustion, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial process.

Methane is also a primary constituent of natural gas and an important energy source. As a result, efforts to prevent or utilize methane emissions can provide significant energy, economic and environmental benefits.

Gellan film enhancing stability of vitamin C

[2104]
Paula Leona and Ana Rojas found that an edible film based on 1% gellan and glycerol in water enhanced the stability and non-enzymic browning resistance of vitamin C having an application as antioxidant in various formulations. Natural antioxidants like ascorbic acid are increasingly used in place of synthetic ones.

Seed flours derived from Chardonnay grapes and black raspberries improving stability of fish oil

[2105]
Fish oil is highly susceptible to oxidation, resulting in a fishy taste and smell. Aside of microencapsulation Marla Luther and colleagues 2007 suggest ethanol extracts of Chardonnary grape and black raspberry seed flours to suppress lipid oxidation and rancidity development of omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil.

The black raspberry and Chardonnary seeds flour extract also exhibited bacteriocidal activity against E. coli and inhibited the growth of Listeria monocytogenes at a level of 165

g seed flour equivalents/mL. According to the authors, the flour of these seeds may become a natural preservative and antioxidant omega-3 fatty acids added to a variety of canned foods, bread, dairy products and confectioneries.

Research on exposure and toxicological/ecotoxicological effects of nanoparticles

[2106]
Nanotechnology describes the manufacture, examination and use of structures, molecular materials, inner interfaces with at least one critical dimension below 100 nm.

Nanoparticles are understood as being engineered granular particulates, tubes and fibres with a diameter

100nm (including their agglomerates and aggregates) for at least one dimension which have been shown to have low solubility in biological systems. Based on knowledge acquired so far these particles are particularly toxicologically relevant.

It is expected that the importance of nanotechnology will continue to grow and that workers and consumers will be increasingly exposed to it.

According to present knowledge, the insoluble and poorly soluble nanoparticles2 are particularly toxicologically relevant.

As the exposure of humans and the environment as well as the toxicological and ecotoxicological properties and risks have not yet been characterised, there is a general need to conduct further studies and to close the gaps in knowledge through research and assessment activities.

Chemical legislation does not specify any obligation to test (e.g. toxicological studies) or assess widespread nanoparticles like for instance titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, silicon dioxide or "carbon black" that involve a nanoscale modification to a high production volume existing substance with the same CAS Number

Nanoparticles as food additives
Up to now there has been no specific regulation for nanoparticles in the areas food, consumer goods or cosmetics. For instance, no particle sizes are stipulated in the purity criteria for the approved food additives silicon dioxide (E551) and titanium dioxide (E171).

Public acceptance of nanotechnology
In order to promote the acceptance of nanotechnology by the public, accompanying social scientific research should be conducted and there should be transparent discussion of the risks with all interested stakeholders in society (cf. for instance http://www.dialognanopartikel.de/downloads.html).

The Goal of the research
The main goal of this research strategy is to structure the research area, to develop the measurement of particles (metrology), to record information on exposure and toxicological/ecotoxicological effects, to promote the development of a sophisticated risk related test and assessment strategy, safety and risk management.

Nanotechnology and organic foods

UK Soil Association banned Nanotechnology from organic foods

U.S. Environmental Protection Agencvy (EPA) and nanotechnology

[2107]
Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly one to 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel applications. Many nanoscale materials are regarded as "chemical substances" under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).

The Nanotechnology White Paper

[2108]
The paper discusses the potential environmental benefits of nanotechnology, conduct risk assessment, responsible development, research needs for both environmental applications and implications of nanotechnology and concludes with staff recommendations for addressing science issues and research needs.
The paper organises nanoparticles in four groups:

Carbon-based materials: These nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon, most commonly taking the form of a hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are referred to as fullerenes, while cylindrical ones are called nanotubes. These particles have many potential applications, including improved films and coatings, stronger and lighter materials, and applications in electronics.
Metal-based materials: These nanomaterials include quantum dots, nanogold, nanosilver and metal oxides, such as titanium dioxide. A quantum dot is a closely packed semiconductor crystal comprised of hundreds or thousands of atoms, and whose size is on the order of a few nanometers to a few hundred nanometers. Changing the size of quantum dots changes their optical properties.
Dendrimers: These nanomaterials are nanosized polymers built from branched units. The surface of a dendrimer has numerous chain ends, which can be tailored to perform specific chemical functions. This property could also be useful for catalysis. Also, because three-dimensional dendrimers contain interior cavities into which other molecules could be placed, they may be useful for drug delivery.
Composites: They combine nanoparticles with other nanoparticles or with larger, bulk-type materials. Nanoparticles, such as nanosized clays, are already being added to products ranging from auto parts to packaging materials, to enhance mechanical, thermal, barrier, and flame-retardant properties.

Jean-Marie Lehn in 1987 recived the Nobel-Price of chemistry for his work on Industrial involvement in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is already being widely used by L'Oreal, Unilever and Lancome in their cosmetics and health products.

The NanoFood consortium was established by Danisco and Arla Foods. The consortium studies the applications, and improvement of the delivery of nutrients or flavours using nanoparticles in food products. [2109]

The UK Soil Association wants to keep nanotechnology out of organic food

[2110] The Soil Association is a certifier of organic products in UK. The association expresses concerns about the government's failure to follow scientific advice and regulate products. The association calls for an immediate stop of commercial release of nanomaterials until there is a sound body of scientific research into all the health impacts.

BfR survey on nanotechnology acceptance

[2111]
According to a survey on nanotechnology acceptance the majority of the consumers are against the use of nanotechnology in food: 69 percent of the respondents reject the use of nanoadditives in spices to prevent them from becoming lumpy. 84 percentdo not want any foods whose appearance has been rendered more appealing for longer through the use of nanoparticles.

Technology reducing lactic acid during production of probiotic cultures

[2112]
Living bacterial strains of probiotics will be produced using a new technique which continuosly removes lactic acid during fermentation by electrodialyses. Lactic acid limits the bacterial growth. Removig it from the system, as it is being formed, improves yields and quality of the probiotic culture.

The Reverse Electro-Enhanced Dialysis (REED) system was developed by the Danish firm Jurag Separation and can be combined with traditional or bipolar membrane electro dialysis processes using continuously .changing the direction of electrical current. It avoids thus fouling of the membrane. The system is a continuous ion-exchange across selective ion-exchange membranes without the use of resins.

Sorghum is safe for people with celiac disease

[2113] [2114]
Grain sorghum tolerates conditions of limited moisture and extended drought when other grains do not grow any more. It is used for unleavened breads, boiled porridge or gruel, malted beverages including beer, popped grain and syrup from sweet sorghum. Its protein content is higher than corn and about equal to wheat. Its fat content is lower than corn but higher than wheat.

In US sorghum is hydrolysed to dextrose for use in foods.
There are about 30 species of sorghum. Soghum hybrids are Sorghum almum and Sorghum drummondii.

Some species of Sorghum can contain levels of cyanide and nitrates lethal to grazing animals in the early stages of the plant's growth. Stressed plants, even at later stages of growth, can also contain toxic levels of cyanide.

According to Carolina Ciacci andcolleagues, sorghum can be considered safe for people with celiac disease. The scientists assessed safety and tolerability of sorghum flour products in adult celiac disease patients in a 5 day challenge with sorghum-derived food product. At the end of the trial no morphometric or immunomediated alteration of duodenal explants were found.

According to the authors sorghum is a cereal grain with potential to be developed into an important crop for human food products which can be used in food products which must be free of all wheat types and closely related cereals such as barley and rye. White sorghum hybrids may therefore become important for the production of wheat-free breads and cakes.

The authors conclude that sorghum can be considered safe for people with celiac disease. Additional studies are needed to confirm the long-term safety and acceptability of sorghum-derived food for gluten intolerant people.

Vetch as pizza cheese topping low in animal fat

[2115] [2116] [2117]
Salim-ur-Rehman and colleagues 2007 developed a vetch-bovine skimmed milk powder as an alternative to mozzarella pizza cheese low in animal fat.

Vetch (Lathyrus sativus) is a legume grown in Pakistan. It has a high quality protein ranging between 26.5 and 28.7 and fat 1.36 per cent.

Lactic acid bacterial culture of Streptococcus thermophillus and Streptococcus bulgaricus and rennet were used in the preparation of the cheese.

The authors suggest a blend at the ratio of 12.5 vetch flour to 87,5 bovine skimmed milk powder to be usedinstead of Mozzarella cheese for pizza topping, to reduce coronary risks caused by animal fat.

Vetch must be submitted to a complicated detoxification process to get rid of the neurotoxin amino acid (beta-N-oxalyl-L-alpha-beta-diaminopropionic acid), which builds up in the brains and livers of non-ruminant animals. This toxin can cause an irreversible disease called neurolathrysm which paralysis the lower limbs. This may arise in animals with a single stomach, like humans, chickens and pigs. Other antinutritional factors in grass pea include trypsin inhibitors, tannins, lectins, phytate and oligosaccharides.

Bioavailability of calcium from soymilk

[2118]
Soymilk are often enriched with 120mg/100ml with calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, or calcium chloride to obtain an equivalent content of calcium of cow milk. However poor solubility reduce bioavailability of calcium from soymilk.

Tang and colleagues 2007 found that fermentation of calcium-fortified soymilk with probiotic bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4962 and L. casei ASCC 290 increased the calcium solubility up to 89 per cent, enhancing bioavailability. The low pH resulted from the production oflactic and acetic acid was found to cause the increased solubility.

The increase in calcium solubility observed was related to lowered pH associated with production of lactic and acetic acids.
The conversion of the glucoside isoflavones into the bioactive isoflavone aglycone form was also observed.

The fermentation significantly increased also the conversion of isoflavones from their natural glucoside form into the biologically active aglycone forms such as diadzein, genistein, and glycetein.

Modest lowering of LDL- Cholesterin effect of soy milk compared with dairy milk was reported

[2119]
Gardner and colleagues 2007 compared the effects of commercially available soy milks made using whole soy beans, or using soy protein isolate with low-fat dairy milk on plasma lipid, insulin, and glucose responses.

The authors report that a 25 g dose of daily soy protein from soy milk led to a modest 5% lowering of LDL-C relative to dairy milk among adults with elevated LDL-C. No different effect was found between whole say bean milk and soy protein isolate milk.

Magnolia bark extract to enhance breath-freshening of chewing gums

[2120]
Natural botanic extracts such as the two main components, magnolol and honokiol from magnolia bark extract were tested in chewing gum and compressed mints for breath freshening and relief of oral malodour. A strong germ-kill effect against bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans, bacteria involved in dental caries formation, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and S. mutans were found.

The authors conclude that extract of magnolia bark has a significant antibacterial activity against organisms responsible for oral malodour and its use in compressed mints and chewing gum for improved breath-freshening is being suggested.

Canola Protein use as gelation agent

[2121]
Enzymatic modification with transglutaminase was used to enhance the gelation of canola protein isolate, opening the door to replace some gelation agents which are getting more expensive from day to day.

Pinterits and Arntfield treated canola protein isolate with the transgutaminase enzyme to enhance gelatination. Best gelation was obtained increasing the amounts of protein and transglutaminase and maintaining the temperature close to 40 $^{o}$ C. Gel strength was explained to cross-linking of subunits.

Canola hydrolysates as antioxidant and improving meat cooking yield

[2122]
According to Fereidoon Shahidi and colleagues 2008 canola protein hydrolysates are antioxidants and were found to enhance water-holding capacity and cooking yield in a meat model system.

Commercial enzymes Alkalase and Flavourzyme were used by the authors. Flavourzyme presented the hydrolysates with the best antioxidant results and the best cooking yield of meat compared with combination with Alcalasae, or Alkalase alone.

The authors conclude that canola protein hydrolysates can be useful as functional food ingredients, and stress that their potential application in the food and feed industries depend on the composition of the hydrolysates.

Silver carp hydrolysates with improved solubility and antioxidant properties

[2123]
Shiyuan Dong studied the antioxidant and biochemical properties of enzymatically hydrolysates silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) using Alkalase and Flavourzyme enzymes.

The hydrolysates presented improved solubility to above 75% over a wide pH range and yellow colour when hydrolysis time was more than 3 hours.

The hydrolysates exhibited significant hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity and inhibited linoleic acid peroxidation. Lower molecular weight hydrolysates possessed stronger Fe $^{2+}$ chelation ability. The authors concluded that the antioxidant activity of silver carp protein hydrolysates were related to its degree of hydrolysis, hydrolysis time and molecular weight.

Antioxidant effect of grape seed extract

Effect on Ground beef and pork patties:

Rojas and Brewer compared the antioxidant effect of grape seed extract (0.01% and 0.02%), oleoresin rosemary (0.02%) and water-soluble oregano extract (0.02%]. 2% of salt were added in all samples. Oxidative and colour stability of cooked beef and pork patties stored at 4 $^{o}$ C for 8 days.
The authors found that grape seed extract resulted in the best antioxidant activity and appeared to reduce visual green discolouration in beef patties.
The researchers concluded that grape seed extract at 0.02% has the potential to reduce oxidative rancidity and improve shelf life of refrigerated cooked beef and pork patties. [2124]

Effect grape seed extract on ground chicken thigh meat:

Brannan studied the effect of grape seed extract (0.1%) and NaCl (1%) in ground chicken thigh meat during refrigerated storage at different relative humidity.

He concluded that grape seed extract is an effective antioxidant in ground chicken thigh meat that does not affect moisture content or pH during storage, inhibits TBARS formation, helps to mitigate the prooxidative effects of NaCl, and may alter the effect of NaCl on protein solubility in salted chicken patties. [2125]

The importance of interaction of bacterial surfaces and food

Interaction of bacterial surfaces and fermented dairy products []
Ly and colleagues 2007 studied the effects of the surface properties of lactic acid bacteria on the stability of model food emulsions such as the oil/water emulsions stabilized by milk proteins (sodium caseinate, whey proteins concentrate or whey proteins isolate) at different pH.

They found that important surface properties of bacteria strains are hydrophobicity, Lewis acid/base and charge, and the characteristics of emulsions such as pH and the concentration of cations present in media such as calcium.

The authors conclude that the knowledge and choice of bacteria depending on their surface properties could be one of the important factors to control the stability of matrices such as fermentation media or fermented products.

Interaction of bacterial surfaces and emulsions

[2127] Mai Huong Ly and colleagues studied the effect of bacterial surface properties of Lactococcus lactis subsp lactis biovar diacetylactis (LLD) on the stability of model emulsions. they stress that the stability of emulsions or food matrixes, depend on physicochemical interactions, similar to the attachment processes of microorganisms, through their surface properties, to interfaces. Both sides can therefore interact.

The authors concluded that the effect of bacteria on the emulsion stability depended on the strain which shows the importance of the choice of the microorganism according to of the characteristics of the colloidal media to obtain a stable system. In addition, these results suggest that the interactions between bacteria and other food components can influence the position of bacteria in food matrixes.

Interaction of bacterial surfaces and aroma

[2128]
Ly and colleagues studied the retention of two ethyl esters (ethyl acetate and ethyl hexanoate) by two strains of lactic acid bacteria ( Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biov. diacetylactis) representing typical bacterial macromolecule surface properties involved in the production of cheese.

The authors concluded that bacteria, through their surface physicochemical properties, can interact directly with aroma compounds or in an indirect way, by changing the emulsion characteristics. However, these effects depend on the physicochemical properties of both aroma compounds and bacterial surfaces.

Innovative extraction of anthocyanins methods

[2129]
According to Corrales and the anthocyanins from low cost grape by-products may be extracted using new technologies such as heat treatment at 70 $^{o}$ C together with 600MPa high hydrostatic pressure, 3 kV $^{-cm}$ pulsed electric fields and 35 Khz ultrasonics, reduces solvent and shortens extraction time. The authors compared these methods with control extractions and found up to four-fold higher antioxidant activity of the extracts. Anthocyanin monoglucosides were better extracted by pulsed electric field, whereas the acylated ones were extracted by high hydrostatic pressure.

Natural extracts from olive and grape may be used for their antioxidant effect and antimicrobial activity

[2130]
Serra and colleagues responding to a growing resistance to synthetic preservatives such as BHA and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) and oleuropein as antioxidant analysed the extracts of waste from olive oil and wine production.

They found that the extracts inhibited microbes like E.coli, S.poona, B.cereus, S. cerevisiae and C.albicans more efficiently than standard antioxidants such as quercetin, hydroxytyrosol and oleuropein. The active compound of the extracts were phenolic compounds, such as 3400 milligram of gallic acid equivalents per litre (GAE/L), compared to 400mgGAE/L in the olive extract. Gram negative bacteria were more resistant to olive phenolics than Gram positive strains.

The authors concluded that the natural grape extract and olive extract may be used as natural preservative for foods.

Natural antioxidants from garlic and onions

Pomegranate peel extract is a promising antioxidant for sunflower oil

[2131]
Pomegranate peels, an agricultural waste, was assessed by Iqbal Shahid and colleagues as an antioxidant source. Methanolic extract was found to be highest in yield. The authors found that 800-850 ppm of pomegranate peels extract to be as efficiency as the synthetic antioxidants BHT at its legal limit. In this study weight gain, antioxidant activity index, peroxide value, and thiobarbituric acid reactivesubstances were analysed as parameters of the stability of sunflower oil under test.

Important antioxidants of pomegranate are ellagitannin compounds like punicalagins and punicalins which are behind the reported health benefits such as heart health, prostate cancer risc reduction and slowing cartilage loss in arthritis.

The authors concluded that extracts from pomegranate peels to be a potent antioxidant for the stabilization of sunflower oil.

Garlic extract stabilizes sunflower oil

[2132]
Efficacy of methanolic garlic extract in stabilizing sunflower oil were studied by Iqbal and Bhanger. The authors evaluated the effectiveness of garlic in stabilising sunflower oil taking as parameters weight gain, antioxidant activity index, free fatty acid content, peroxide value, conjugated dienes, conjugated trienes and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances.
They concluded that garlic is a potent antioxidant for stabilization of sunflower oil.

Comparison of antioxidant activities extracts of garlic and onions

[2133]
The antioxidant activities of the methanol extracts of selected varieties and parts of garlic and onion were studied by Anna Maria Nuutila and colleagues using two methods: inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide in isolated rat hepatocytes and scavenging activity against diphenylpicrylhydrazyl radical.

According to the authors the radical scavenging method had more benefits compared to the lipid peroxidation method, being easier, cheaper, more specific and reproducible, and also correlated positively with the total phenolics of the extracts.

The researchers concluded that onions had clearly higher radical scavenging activities than garlic, red onion being more active than yellow onion, and the skin extracts of onion possessed the highest activities.

Antioxidant effect of garlic in chicken sauce

[2134]
The antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of equivalent concentrations of fresh garlic, garlic powder and garlic oil were investigated against lipid oxidation and microbial growth in raw chicken sausage during storage at 3 $^{0}$ C. Fresh garlic and garlic powder were found to have high antioxidant activity and significantly reduce aerobic plate count extending the shelf-life of the product to 21 days.

The authors concluded that. fresh garlic and garlic powder, through their combined antioxidant and antimicrobial effects, are potentially useful in preserving meat products.

The microalgae Chlorella vulgaris could be a rich source of extractable antioxidants

[2136]
According to Ignacio Rodriguez-Gacia and Jose Luis Guil-Guerrero the antioxidant activity of the microalgal ethanolic extracts of Chlorella vulgaris was higher than that of Porphyridium cruentum, of Phaeodactylum tricornutum , of BHA and BHT.

Other sources of natural antioxidants may include the extracts from Porphyridium cruentum, Phaeodactylum tricornutum.

The authors concluded in this study that Chlorella vulgaris may be an important source of natural antioxidants, as an alternative to higher plants or the production by chemical synthesis.

Onion waste as source of antioxidant and anti-browning bioactive ingredients

[2135]
Onion wastes are not suitable for fodder, or landfill disposal due to the rapid growth of phytopathogens , the white rot mould (Sclerotium cepivorum Berk) [874]. Onion waste is therefore an environmental problem. Roldán and colleagues 2008 analysing the problem found that this waste could be used in the production of a paste with high antioxidant and anti-browning effects.

The frozen paste of the Recas onions contained total quercetin content of 4431 mg per 100 grams of dry weight. Pasteurisation reduced quercentine down to 721 mg per 100 grams of dry weight.

The authors suggest to use waste of the Reca onion variety and apply mild pasteurisation to obtain a stabilised onion by-product paste with good antioxidant properties which could be used as functional food ingredient.

Effect of antioxidant varies in different foods

[875]
A variety of n-3 PUFA enriched functional food emulsions have been placed on market. To retard oxidation EDTA, tocopherols (vitamin E), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), lactoferrin, gallic acid, and some plant extracts such as oregano and rosemary extracts, and chardonnay grape and raspberry extract are being used.

Charlotte Jacobsen and colleagues 2008 studied the ability of antioxidants to prevent lipid oxidation in food emulsions in general and in functional food systems enriched with n-3 PUFA in particular. They found that the same antioxidant exerts different effects in different systems such as milk, milk drink, salad dressing, mayonnaise and other emulsions, in some cases they may even exert opposite effects on peroxide levels and on formation of individual volatiles and fishy odour and flavours.

EDTA was found to be efficient in salad dressing and mayonnaise, but not in milk, which can protected against oxidation by ascorbyl palmitate. The authors recommend to evaluate the effects of antioxidants by more than one method.

Trehalose improves colour, taste and polyphenols in strawberry creams and dried fruit cubes

[876] [877]
According to a study of Mirela Kopjar and colleagues 2007 and another study by Komes and colleagues 2006, improvements were achieved in colour and aroma levels during the production of commercial strawberry cream fillings, peer purree or peer cubes adding trehalose and using freeze drying compared with the standard method of heat evaporation trehalose also had a positive effect on the levels of fruity esters.

Trehalose is a dissaccharide sugar found in mushrooms, honey, lobster and shrimp. Together with the freeze-drying technique trehalose enhanced the colour the taste and anthocyanin content of the final product. A better rehydration was observed in dried products using trehalose.

The authors concluded that aroma compounds retention depends not only on the process selected, but also on the structure of the aroma compounds. The degree of retention depends on the complexity of the food matrix and interactions within its components, such as trehalose. The authors packed the strawberry cream fillings in air and nitrogen atmosphere, and stored for 5 months at room temperature and noted that trehalose and packaging atmosphere influenced colour, aroma and texture.

Stabilization and Preservation of Lactobacillus acidophilus

[878]
Conrad and colleagues 2000 developed an alfa, alfa-trehalose -borate system to protect Lactobacillus acidophilus during freeze- and vacuum-drying.

The authors stress that the presence of borate can dramatically enhance the protective ability of trehalose and greatly improves the recovery of freeze-dried or vacuum-dried viable cells after storage at 37 $^{0}$ C and room temperatures respectively.

The authors report that a buffering strategy was tested to counteract the high pH resulting from the addition of borate to the mixture. Use of citric or lactic acids in combination with ammonium hydroxide in this strategy enhanced cell survival.
The authors point to possibility to protect more labile species during dehydration.

Beet red production [879]

Depending on the structure of the process being in use at the factory the recommendations of JECFA may be followed:

Extraction:

Prepare press juice of beet roots, or make an aqueous extraction of shredded beet roots, (however, the more water is used energy to dehydrate will be higher). Solid leftover should go to further sugar extraction.

Filter:

Remove sediments by filtering or by centrifugation depending on the available equipment. Best is centrifugation.

Be aware that iron ions are deadly for the product, so all metal which comes in contact ( Water used for the process must be as low on iron as possible. The washing machine, the shredderer, the press and the vacuum dehydrator must be of excellent rust free steel as leeching iron ions from rusty parts destabilize the colour during processing and storage.)