Subsections

Food, what is it?


Milk and dairy products

Milk and dairy products are an important source of proteins , calcium and vitamins.They are ideal baby food therefore is this product of great importance.
The production of milk is worldwide concentrating in very few big companies. This increases quality through modern know how destroying however the small decentralized factories.

The very big international dairy food producers

[105]
  Enterprise Seat of Sales Mio
    the Head US Dollar
1 Nestlé Ch 13.500
2 Kraft (Philip Morris) USA 8.000
3 Dairy Farmers of America USA 6.900
4 Danone F 5.800
5 Friesland Coberco Dairy Food NL 5.500
6 Besnier F 5.100
7 Snow Brand Milk Products J 5.000
8 Campina Melkunie/MKW NL 4.800
9 Bongrain F 4.600
10 Meji Milk Products J 4.000


Milk Calcium

[181] Milk is a natural source of calcium. Unfortunately young people drink less milk and more carbonated drinks increasing a possible undersupply of calcium. The decline in use of dairy products along with the increase of osteosporosis has boosted the fortification of food and beverages with o calcium all over the world [199]. Calcium sources are: But none of these sources have the same high bio availability as milk and their derivates.That is why milk should be carefully protected against pollution and diseases such as BSE.


Bio availability of calcium

[206] One liter skim or full fat milk contains 1.200 mg calcium.About 30% of it is available to humans.
The availability of calcium depends largely of it being soluble.
In mineral water calcium is present in soluble form being mineral water therefore a good source of calcium.In dietary supplements the availability of calcium can be differ from case to case.
The bio availability of calcium in vegetables is smaller as from milk.
In milk calcium is linked with other components which avoid reactions as insoluble salts. Daily intake of calcium :
Adults = 800 mg
Infants =1.200 mg
To keep bones strong magnesium as well as calcium and vitamin D are needed.
The ratio of calcium and magnesium is important.Too much calcium and two little magnesium makes blood more apt to clot, leading to heart attack.

The proper ratio is half as much magnesium as calcium.It is believed that old people get only one-fourth as much magnesium as calcium, specifically if they take calcium supplements.
An intake of 1.200 milligrams of calcium per day demands 600 mg of magnesium [181].
A separate supplement of 200 to 300 mg per day seems to be good.Dr. Seelig insists that the daily intake of magnesium should be about 500 milligrams [200].

Food milligram calcium
A glass of skim milk 300
A cup of low fat Yogurt 415
Kale very rich in calcium
Tofu high content of calcium

Daily calcium intake:

[106] The Institute of Medicine released a report listing the requirements for daily calcium intake. How much calcium a person needs to maintain good health varies by age group. Recommendations from the report are shown in the following table.

Age group Amount of calcium to consume
  daily, in milligrams (mg)
   
0-6 months 400 mg
6-12 months 600 mg
1-5 years 800 mg
6-10 years 1,200 mg
11-24 years 1,200-1,500 mg
19-50 years 1,000 mg
51-70+ years 1,500 mg

In addition, pregnant and nursing women need between 1,200 and 1,500 mg of calcium daily.


Pollutants in milk and dairy products

Pesticides and aflatoxins in milk have their origin in imported animal feed.
The fat soluble pesticides like polychlorated hydrocarbons can contaminate easily milk, heavy metals are very seldom found in milk because they have low solubility.

All efforts should be made to avoid contamination because milk is used to feed children, dairy products such as cheese or yoghurt are consumed in large scale. Contagious diseases like BSE should therefore be avoided through rigorous epidemiological measures.

Pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides herbicides, hexachlorobenzene ( HCB ) and isomers of hexachloro cyclohexane ( HCH )are used in agriculture or are found on the fields.

Even with low concentration of pesticides in animal feed the milk may be heavily affected because liposoluble pesticides usually store in the body of animals and can be detected in the milk in high level.

Mycotoxines such as aflatoxin B1 may be present in ground peanuts or cotton seeds.The cows changes the aflatoxin B1 to aflatoxin M1.
This is why animal feed should be protected against deterioration. Contaminated or spoiled food should not be given to animals.
Chlorated hydrocarbon such as Polychlorated biphenyl(PCB) were used in the past in transformers, refrigerators, in hydraulic oil and as all round chemicals. Its level in milk has decreased after the use of PCB has been reduced.

Other chlorated hydrocarbons such as polychlorated dibenzodioxine ( PCDD ) and polychlorated dibenzofurane ( PCDF ) are also present in the human milk and in the milk of cows, but not as high as Chlorine hydrocarbons ( HCB, DDT and PCB ).

Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury are of small importance because its concentration in milk is low.


Radioactive pollution of milk

In Europe the nuclear accident of Tschernobyl hat caused an considerable increase of radioactivity in milk and milk products in 1986.

The amount of radioactive material which was liberated into the atmosphere was several times the amount liberated by the Hiroschima bomb in 1945. Immediately after the accident due to west bounded winds there were the following radionuclides found in West Europe:

Iodine-131, cesium-134 and cesium-137. There was a small amount of Strontium-90.Strontium, which is even today very high in Brazil nuts of the Amazon region originated from nuclear bomb test in Nevada, USA in the forties. The radioactive pollution was carried through the Stratosphere and came down as fall-out in the rain forest.

These incidents show how carefully radioactivity should be handled.
In milk the nuclides are concentrated in the whey and remain there. That is why whey powder was highly contaminated causing headlines. The contamination with Strontium 90 in butter was low.

In whey powder due to the concentration, radioactivity can increase from 200 Bq/liter to 7.200 Bq/kg. In 1986 500 tons of whey powder were discarded in in Germany having high radioactivity resulting from the concentration of cesium.In cheese the remaining cesium is very little.
After some weeks only cesium -134 and cesium -137 was left.

Low levels of radioactivity is told to increases the efficiency of the DNA repair-system an increases the activity of the immune system[107]. This is not valid for radionuclide in food because they are deposited in bones and organs and with the time this material is being concentrated in the body. Damage of cells are than possible.
Therefore radioactivity in food should be kept as low as possible.


Cheese

The different types of cheese are made from sour milk, separation of the whey and inoculating special bacteria or moulds creating the characteristic flavor of each sort.
The following bacteria and moulds are being used in dairies:


Microorganism used in
Lactic acid bacteria cottage cheese, fresh cheese
Propionic acid bacteria Emmental cheese, Appenzeller cheese
Yellow- and red cultures Münster cheese, Romadur cheese
Pennicillium camemberti (white) Camembert cheese and brie
Pennicillium roqueforti ( blue/green) Roquefort, Gorgonzola
   
Some bacteria, such as some kinds of lactic acid bacteria built toxic products such as biogenic amines in cheese. [155]
Biogenic amines found as mg/Kg Cheese
Tyramine Tyramine 86 Camembert
Tryptamine Tyramine 180 Brie
Cadaverine Tyramine 225 Emmentaler
Putrescine Tyramine 72 - 1.416 Cheddar
  Phenylethylamine 2.000 - 4.000 Cheddar
  Histamine up to 2.300 Roquefort
       


Whey: Traditionally, whey was a by-product with a negative value from cheese production. Sport nutrition and functional food market increase the demand of whey protein concentrates and isolates.
Whey protein concentrates: Food industry uses for baking and other uses whey protein powders with 30-40 per cent protein, high amounts of lactose and fat.

Whey protein concentrates: Reducing lactose with ultra-filtration processing the content of protein can be elevated up to 70-80 percent and an increased content of fat.

Whey Protein isolates (WPIs): They contain 90- 96 per cent protein, minimal lactose and almost no fat, and are obtained using ion exchange columns or micro/nanofiltration "cross flow micro filtered process" using high tech ceramic filters. Some vital peptides such as lactoferrin, alpha lactalbumin, immunoglobulins, beta lactoglobin have been removed from whey protein isolates using ion exchange. Nanofiltration, however, retains valuable peptide fractions.

Biogenic amines

Biogenic amines are present in low concentrations in human, animals and plants. They have regulating functions, acting on the nervous system.

Bacteria can produce biogenic amines decarboxilating amino acids in food. Biogenic amines can be produced by Bacillus, Clostridium, Hafnia, Klebsiella, Morganella morganii, Proteus, Lactobacillus such as Lactobacillus buchneri and Lactobacillus delbrueckii in cheese, Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus growing on fish, meat and their products. They are found also in fermented food, like cheese, camembert, wine, beer, sauerkraut and yeast extract.

The concentration of biogenic amines in spoiled food can be toxic.
Biogenic amines of importance are: Histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine. Phenylethylamine is also found in chocolate and acts together with coffeine and theobromine vitalizing. , and spermidine.

Toxicology of histamine

Biogene amines cn be particularly dangerous in people taking monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, an older class of antidepressant pill, ecause they can potentially interact with the medication and cause dangerously high blood pressure.

Regulations:

In Germany there is a maximum of 200 mg/kg histamine in fish established.In 10 samples the average should be under 100 mg/Kg.

In Switzerland there are 100 mg histamine/Kg fish permitted and a maximum of 500 mg/Kg are established. In wine Switzerland has 10 mg/l a tolerable value of histamine in wine.

Tyramine

Tyramine rises blood pressure and causes headaches. It is formed in rockeford cheddar and cheese with white moulds.

Tyrosine-decarboxylase is build by many bacteria such as Streptococcus of the serological group D ( Enterococcus), many Clostridium, some strains of Escherichia coli and many types of Proteus and some lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus.


Pollutants in milk and dairy products

[161] In Bavaria,(south of Germany) the pollutants in milk and dairy products are being controlled over 25 years by the laboratory muva kempten (Veterinary medical analytical office of Kempten). This laboratory has monitored the organochlor-pesticides, PCB, halogenated solvents and heavy metals.

The results of these analysis made it possible to find the cause and to reduce the contamination. At the moment most of the former pollutants of organochlor-pesticides have fallen below detection level in milk from Bavaria. Only lindan is still increased.
This is an example of handling the environment problems making long terms monitoring of food with the cooperation of the laboratory the agriculture and the industry.

The muva kempten now checks organochlor-pesticides (OCP) polychlorated biphenyles (PCB) dioxines, halogenated solvents, mycotoxines, heavy metals, radionuclides, phtalates, nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon substances, organophosphor- and pyrethroid-pesticides using multi methods of preparation of the material, GC-PND and GS-MS. These methods enables the muva kempten to analyse all kind of food.

One important concern of the laboratory is the contamination of food caused by migration of packing components into the food, such as styrol from polystyrol, dioxines from cardboard, plasticiser, heavy metals, nitrosamines from rubber, and (Bisphenyl-A-diglycidilether) Problems which come from coating of tin cans.
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Organic migrations are detected by GC-MS and HPLC and AAS and inorganic ions migrations with AAS.About 70% of canned food were found to be contaminated with BADGE and BFDGE (Bisphenol-A-diglycidilether) according to the French magazine "test achat".Heavy contamination was found in cans containing fish and foods with high amount of acid like lemon, vinegar or tomatoes.
The European Commission made has completed in early 1999 a study concerning the safety of BADGE. According to this Study there is no danger coming from BADGE. Therefore the Commission rose the maximum allowed amount of BADGE in foods from 20 microgram in one kilogram up to 1 milligram in one kilogram food.This was intended only for tin cans coated with plastics. As there are no limits established for for coatings with clear varnish many countries use this high value also for varnished cans.
The toxicology of BFDGE and the catabolic products of BADGE and BFDGE are still unknown.

Recommendations to reduce BADGE and BFDGE: "test achat" recommends to change from canned food to food in glass packaging. Discarding the immersion brine can further reduce BADGE and BFDGE. Contamination of cleaning and disinfection agents are also possible as contaminants of food. This has to be monitored.

The cooperation between official supervision of food, agriculture and industry has brought good results in research and improvements since repressive rules of supervision had been changed to open discussion and mutual good will of all parts engaged in the long way from farming to the consumer.


Contaminants in baby food:

[182] In baby food were found for health dangerous phtalate DBP and DEHP.
These contaminants were found in the milk used for these products.

All efforts should be made to reduce or even to avoid the possibility of contamination of the milk on its origin.


More safety for food:

The French President Jacques Chirac after the latest affairs of food poisoning has suggested the creation of an international board for food security. The board should contain scientist of high reputation. Chirac spoke with US president Bill Clinton which assured the cooperation from US.

New bacterology tools for enhanced food safety

New DNA tools developed by the Agence Fransaise de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, together with other French food laboratories have demonstrated that dominant bacterial population of fresh milk was Lactobacillus lactis. This bacterium is commonly used as a starter culture in dairy. It is not harmful. After 24 hours of refrigeration at 4$^{0}$C psychotrofic bacteria such as Listeria spp and Aeromonas hydrophila emerge. These psichotrofic bacteria are life threatening in cheese products.

DNA using temporal gel electrophoresis TTGE and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Bacterial identification was facilitated by comparision with a bacterial reference database which had been established with DNA fragments of pure bacterial strains.

The results contribute to the knowledge on the bacterial flora of raw milk samples and also describe the consequences of a simple process, milk refrigeration, on the quality of dairy products and its impact on health.[1499]

Novel Food, Nutraceuticals,Functional Foods, Fast Food, Snacks, Finger Food

Novel Foods are foods which can be assigned to special types of foods such as genetic modified foods,genetic modified organism and their products, new molecular structures or new technological procedures.Foods which are regulated by the Novel Food Regulation of the European Community have to pass a complicated license procedure.

Functional foods are foods which have a positive action upon the health of the consumer. The origin of functional food lies im Japan.

Increasing sales of probiotic yoghurt and dairies have boosted the hope of massive profits with functional foods health ingredients, isoflavones, Aloe vera, probiotic bacteria and dietary fibre. It is called " up trading " of the product. Up trading is the rise of quality to achieve better prices.


Functional Food, Nutrition, Nutriceuticals

All these words are used by marketing to boost selling. It is true that fibre can be useful to reduce blood cholesterol or calcium can help to reduce the risk of osteoporosis and vitamins can strengthen the immune system.
The truth is that it does not work.

The consumer is taken to believe that everything is all right when he takes a calcium enriched drink , sometimes with 4 or 5 added synthetic vitamins.

These foods cannot substitute natural nutrition rich in vegetables, fruits and fat reduced meals and whole-meal bread which was the nutrition at the beginning of the 20 th century. The German Nutrition Society (DGE) says that for an average population there is no need of supplements, functional foods or whatsoever when enough vegetables, fruits, fish and whole-meal bread are eaten and low fat nutrition is observed.

Publicity around one-sided modified foods give the consumer a wrong feeling of safety. He things that " he finally can feel well all round " drinking some special stuff of functional drinks which now come on market and does not need to get classic foods which bear all these ingredients together with thousands of other components.
José Lutzenberger a Brazilian Nobel-Price bearer and Franz-Theo Gottwald in their book Ernährung in der Wissensgesellschaft, CAMPUS EXPO 2000 Hannover in their vision about world nutrition say that the global distribution of food and growing modification of food by mighty companies destroy the natural resources of the world.

Many products which are on market and claim to be functional food have only calcium added claiming for health. The supply of Calcium can easily achieved drinking milk or eating yoghurt.
Hannu Salovaara, professor of grain technology at the University of Helsinki says:" It is not new knowledge that foods may also have a healthy activity. In the discussion about Functional Food does one sells only old wine in new tubes?".


Fruits and vegetables, protective factors

There are no evidences that isolated or in combination given antioxidants have a preventive activity against cancer or cardiac infarction
The protective activity which is being found in natural food must therefore be active only in a natural system or in combinations with other active compounds presenting synergic effects.

One should however not forget the preventive effect of folic acid during pregnancy preventing neural tube defects of the newborn (spina bifida and hydrocephalus). (400microg folic acid/day) [882].

Folic acid fortification of cereal products
Folate deficiency in early pregnancy is linked to increased risk of neural tube defects or spina bifida and anencephaly in infants. Since 1998 all US all grain products are fortified with folic acid. There is an ongoing debate in UK to fortify flour with folic acid. The Ireland's National Committee on Folic Acid Fortication recommended that most white, brown and wholemeal breads sold in the country be fortified with 120 micrograms of folic acid per 100g of bread. Food Standards Australia New Zealand made a proposal top fortify all bread-making flour with folic acid.

Results of folate study adverse to a fortification of food with folic acid [883] Van Guelpen and colleagues found that plasma folate concentrations were strongly positively related to colorectal cancer CRC risk.

They concluded that their findings suggest a decreased CRC risk in subjects with low folate status. This possibility of a detrimental component to the role of folate in carcinogenesis could have implications in the ongoing debate in Europe concerning mandatory folate fortification of foods.

Folic acid supplementation of bread or flower

The UK Food Standards Agency recommended that bread or flower to be fortified with folic acid to reduce the number of cases of neural tube defects (spina bifida) (March 2007). [889]

The Institute of Food Research (IFR) warns of possible adverse effects of fortifying food with folic acid. According to Anthony Wright and colleagues, folates are metabolised in the gut, and folic acid is metabolised in the liver, which could easily become saturated. Supplementation may result in unmetabolised folic acid to enter the systemic circulation, since human liver's low capacity for reduction may eventually give rise to saturation. [885]

Supplementation of Bread flower and cereals in USA and Canada
The FDA published in 1996 regulations requiring the addition of folic acid to enriched breads, cereals, flours, corn meals, pastas, rice, and other grain products.

Suplementation in UK
The Foof Standards Agency considered mandatory fortification in 2002. However, the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) opposed to the fortification and issued an advice on the introduction of mandatory fortification of flour with folic acid at current states saying that it beside reducing the risk of NTD-affected pregnancies in the UK, it would also increase the proportion of people in the population at risk of exceeding folic acid intakes above the UL/day and the number of people aged 65 years and over with low vitamin B12 status at risk of consuming more than 1mg/day of folic acid. The advice was linked to the condition that there be controls on voluntary fortification, and clear guidance be given on the appropriate use of supplements containing folic acid. [886]

According to Kim and Solomons 2007, recent studies suggest that folic acid supplementation and fortification may promote the progression of already existing, undiagnosed, preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions. These observations are based on the increase in colon cancer diagnoses in the US and Canada. [887]

Unmetabolised folic acid accelerates cognitive decline in the elderly with low vitamin B12 status. Dietary folates have a protect against cancer, but folic acid supplementation may increase the incidence of bowel cancer and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. [888]

Folic acid and Folate [889]
Folate is a generic term for a family of B-group vitamins. There are large numbers of naturally occurring folates but methyl- and formyltetrahydropteroylpolyglutamates are the main forms found in foods.

Folic acid (pteroylmonoglutamic acid) is a synthetic form used in supplements and food fortification. Sometimes it is colled Vitamin B9.

Suplementation with folic acid
The reference nutrient intake (RNI) is the amount of a nutrient that is considered sufficient to meet the requirements of 97.5% of the population. The lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI) is the amount of a nutrient that is considered sufficient to meet the requirementsof 2.5% of the population.

For adults, the RNI for folate is 200microg/day and the LRNI is 100microg/day. For infants and children, the RNIs are: 0-12 months, 50microg/day; 1-3 years, 70microg/day; 4-6 years, 100microg/day; 7-10 years, 150microg/day; the RNI for children 11 years and above is the same as that for adults. The LRNIs for infants and children are: 0-12 months, 30microg/day; 1-3 years, 35microg/day; 4-6 years, 50microg/day; 7-10 years, 75microg/day; the LRNI for children 11 years and above is the same as that for adults. [886]

Maximum intake
For guidance purposes only, in the general population a supplemental dose of 1 mg/day (equivalent to 0.017 mg/kg bw/day in a 60 kg adult) would not be expected to cause adverse effects. Assuming a maximum intake from food of approximately 0.49 mg/day, a total dose of 1.5 mg/day (equivalent to 0.025 mg/kg bw/day in a 60 kg adult) would not be expected to have any adverse effects. [890]

Folic acid

The NIH study on folic acid study in preventing pregnancy complications

[981]
Preconceptional folate supplementation for at least 1 year may halve number of premature birthsFolic acid reduces neural tube defects (spina bifida) and anencephaly. Foli acid is already being added to cereal products in U.S. and Canada starting in 1998.

Radek Bukowski and colleagues in a study concerning folate supplementation and pregnancy found that supplementation for at least 1 year before conception was associated with a 70
Radek Bukowski and colleagues recommend that women of childbearing age take a daily dose of 400 micrograms starting at least 1 year before conception. The study was presented at the 28th Annual Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine (SMFM) 2008 meeting.

Food fortification with Folic Acid

[982]
According to a Health Food Manufacturer's Association (HFMA) Report, the average intake of folic acid per day per person in the UK is 200 $mu$gram. But periconceptional requirement of folic acid per day is 400 $mu$gram.

Supplementation in postconceptional period proved to be less effective in preventing NTD. Folic acid given in the periconceptional period prevents childhood leukaemia, decreases the incidence of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke. The decrease in plasma homocysteine levels reduces the number of deaths due to stroke and Ischemic heart disease, and low levels of folate and Vitamin B12 were linked to depression.

In its paper Dhruvashree Somasundara also stresses that elderly are at risk primarily because they are commonly deficient in Vitamin B12. He calls to fortify food with both folic acid and Vitamin B12.

Mandatory folic acid fortification

[983]
According to Mark A. Lawrence concerns about the safety implications of mandatory folic acid fortification include possible increased risk of cancer particularly colorectal cancer, decreased cognitive function, increased risk of compromised immunity and lack of evidence of protection against coronary heart disease.

Concern has also been raised regarding an increased proportion of methylenetetrahydrofolate reducatase homozygote births in women using folic acid supplements to prevent NTDs. This genotype is reliant on a high intake of folate to maintain health and is negatively associated with increased risk of several chronic diseases if diet quality is not maintained. Further it must be excluded that other phenotypic changes in offspring may take place when folic acid is supplemented in utero.

Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid based supplements

[984]
Robert Clarke (1998) advocated that daily supplementation with both 0.5-5 mg folic acid and about 0.5mg vitamin B-12 would be expected to reduce blood homocysteine concentrations by about a quarter to a third (for example, from about 12 $mu$mol/l to 8-9 $mu$mol/l).

The author called for large scale randomised trials to determine whether lowering blood homocysteine concentrations reduces the risk of vascular disease. This publication initiated a high amount of research on the effect of homocysteine blood level.

Homocysteine Concentration in Early Pregnancy

[985]
In 2008 Linda Dodds and colleagues found that increased total homocysteine (tHcy) was associated with placental-mediated adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Increased tHcy concentrations increased risk of pregnancy loss or preeclampsia compared with subjects with lower tHcy concentrations, but it was not associated with increased risk of developing gestational hypertension or having an small for gestational age infant.

The authors concluded that high tHcy in early pregnancy is a risk factor for pregnancy loss and preeclampsia and results in abnormalities of the placental vasculature.

The Norway study

[986]
Roi Miodini Nilsen and colleagues reported in 2007 a strong risk reduction of placental abruption when both folic acid and multivitamin were supplemented. The authors conclude that folic acid and other vitamin supplementation during pregnancy may be associated with reduced risk of placental abruption.

Voluntary food fortification policy on folate

[987]
Leane Hoey and colleagues studied the effect of fortified foods on blood levels of biomarkers of folate, vitamin B and homocysteine. They wrote that mandatory folic acid fortification of food is effective in reducing neural tube defects and may even reduce stroke-related mortality, but it remains controversial because of concerns about potential adverse effects. Europe has therefore only a voluntary fortification.

The authors found that voluntary food fortification increased dietary intake and biomarker status of folate and metabolically related B vitamins with potential beneficial effects on health. In this research the authors stress that those who do not consume fortified foods regularly may have insufficient B vitamin status and will not participate of these benefits.

Homocysteine did not Lower Mortality and Vascular Disease in Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease

[988]
High plasma homocysteine levels are a risk factor for mortality and vascular disease in observational studies of patients with chronic kidney disease. Folic acid and B vitamins decrease homocysteine levels in this population but whether they lower mortality is unknown.

Treatment with high doses of folic acid and B vitamins did not improve survival or reduce the incidence of vascular disease in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease.

Folates and facial clefts in newborn

[989]

Allen J. Wilcox and colleagues found in a study published in 2007 that folic acid supplementation during early pregnancy ($>$400 $mu$g/day) was associated with a reduced risk of isolated cleft lip with or without cleft palate.

The finds suggest that diets rich in fruits, vegetables, and other high folate containing foods reduced the risk somewhat, however, folic acid supplements and multivitamins added to a folate rich diets is the best protection. Folic acid provided no protection against cleft palate alone.

Preeclampsia

[990]
Preeclampsia is a pregnancy induced hypertension in association with significant amounts of protein in the urine. There can be many different causes for the syndrome. While blood pressure elevation is the most visible sign of the disease, it involves generalized damage to the maternal endothelium and kidneys and liver, with the release of vasopressive factors only secondary to the original damage. Many strategies to reduce the risk of preeclampsia are being studied using vitamine or minerals as supplements:

Maternal Vitamin D Deficiency Increases the Risk of Preeclampsia

[991]
According to Lisa M. Bodnar and colleagues 2007 maternal vitamin D deficiency may be an independent risk factor for preeclampsia. The authors suggest vitamin D supplementation in early pregnancy to prevent preeclampsia and promote neonatal well-being.

Multivitamins containing folic acid reduces risk of preeclampsia

[992]
Shi Wu Wen and colleagues studied the effect of folic acid supplementation in early second trimester and reduction of risk of developing preeclampsia. The authors found that the supplementation of multivitamins containing folic acid was associated with increased serum folate (on average 10.51 $mu$mol/L), decreased plasma homocysteine (on average 0.39 $mu$mol/L), and reduced risk of preeclampsia. They concluded that supplementation of multivitamins containing folic acid in the second trimester is associated with reduced risk of preeclampsia. According to the authors these finding may become a new prevention strategy for pre-eclampsia.

Changes in plasma homocysteine during normal pregnancy

[993]
Yoshihiro Sato and colleagues 2002 studied the changes in total plasma homocysteine concentration that occurred in the first, second, and third trimesters of normal pregnancy in comparision with nonpregnant controls.
The authors found that homocysteine decrease during pregnancy compared with nonpregnant controls. Homocysteine levels were decreased with folic acid supplementation. Homocysteine correlated with albumin levels, which decreased during pregnancy and with folic acid supplementation.

Calcium supplementation reduces severe preeclamptic complications

[994]
J. Villar and colleagues in a study of the UN Development Programme found no change in preeclampsia rates in women supplemented with calcium, but did find a decrease in the rate of severe preeclamptic complications.

Herbal ingredients

Herbal ingredients have been used as food flavoring for hundreds of years. Many herbs are used in pharmacy and are regarded as natural remedies looking for new market segments functional foods rediscovered the value of these herbs when used as ingredient of food.
Consumer are increasingly looking for self-medication using drugs on herbal extract basis available in supermarkets and practicing disease prevention through diet.
Possible functional ingredients are:
Vitamins
Minerals
Essential fatty acids, such as omega 3 and omega 6 fats and oils
Amino acids
Aloe vera to nourish and hydrate the body
Echinachea to support the body's immune system
Fibre: A new fibre is Psyllium which grows in India is told to be very effective to lower cholesterol.
Other polysaccharides with fibre activities are beta-gulcane, pectin, guar gum, inulin, chitosane,cyclodextrine.
Oligosaccharides
Green tea extract has powerful anti-oxidant properties
Tocotrienols
Alpha lipoic acid
Sugar alcohols
Gingko biloba claimed to relieve stress and aid mental alertness.

Isoflavones

Phytoestrogens

[995] [996]
Dietary phytoestrogens are plant-derived nonsteroidal compounds with weak estrogen-like activity. Most phytoestrogens in foods are inactive which are transformed into a steroidal structure similar to estrogens by enzymes of the gastrointestinal duct. Phytoestrogens are subdivided into 4 main classes: isoflavones, lignans, cumestrans and phytosterols, of which the isoflavones and the lignans are the 2 the most important. Soy isoflavones supplement: Soy foods are well balanced and are ingredients of a wide rage of products. Daniel Doerge and Daniel Sheehan oppose the decision of the FDA to approve a health claim that soya reduces the risk of heart disease.

According to Doerges and Sheehan the isoflavones of soya (genistein, daidzein and glycitein) have similar effects to the female hormone oestrogen. Soy oestrogen can lead to health problems in animals including altering sexual development of foetuses and causing thyroid disorders. Although soy is thought to protect against breast cancer, some studies show that some substances may increase the chances of breast cancer which uses oestrogen-type hormones for growth.

The claims of soy isoflavones supplement are to compensate the declining oestrogen levels and thus relieve menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes, as well as decrease the risk of heart disease and osteoporosis, without promoting breast cancer. However, exactly what effect concentrated isoflavones have remains unclear. That is why normal soy food or soy powder is beneficial but isolated soy oestrogen supplements are being looked upon with scepticism.

Isolated Isoflavones not without risk

[891] The Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfA) stresses that soy and red clover contain isoflavones. These phytoestrogens }indexPhytoestrogenscan have a hormone-like effect. There are reports that Asian women who follow a traditional diet and regularly consume soy products scarcely suffer at all from menopausal complaints.

The Bfa, however, reminds that a distinction must be made between whether bioactive compounds are ingested naturally from food or in isolated, fortified form via food supplements. In Germany for some time now food supplements with isolated isoflavones have been available on the market as an alternative to the pre-scribed hormone replacement therapy for menopausal complaints. The products are claimed to be efficacious natural products on menopausal complaints as well as other advantageous health effects on the heart, bones and breasts without any side effects.

Adverse effects of soy/red clover-containing products do not refer to uniform sets of symptoms and point to allergic reactions and/or other causes, perhaps to the basic symptoms of the menopausal complaints of the persons concerned. The adverse effects are linked to various food supplements including ones which contain or contained other possible causal substances besides isoflavones, like nicotinic acid - a source of niacin.

The health assessment of isoflavone-containing food supplements, made by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) found that the assumed positive effects of isolated isoflavones on menopausal complaints Toxicological studies showed that high does of isoflavones, impair the functioning of the thyroid gland and can change mammary gland tissue. It cannot be ruled out that these estrogen-like effects could promote the development of breast cancer.

At the present time, the claimed favourable effects of isolated isoflavones must be deemed to be not sufficiently scientifically substantiated.

The BfR advises against the long-term intake of these products given the unproven positive effects and the serious health consequences for meno-pausal women which cannot be ruled out. BfR concludes that the safety of products containing isolated isoflavones on a soy or red clover basis has not been sufficiently proven. In addition, BfR concludes that there are health risks with low probability from food supplements of this kind for women during and after menopause.

No cardiovascular benefit from soy isoflavones [892]
Garrido and colleagues followed the suggestion that isoflavones protect the cardiovascular system, in part by improving lipid profile. They examined the effect of 12-weeks soy isoflavone supplementation on lipoprotein status and platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density.

Blood pressure, body mass index, subcutaneous fat, insulin, serum lipoprotein, sex hormones and sex hormone-binding globulin did not differ among experimental group and placebo group. However, platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density declined significantly in the experimental group, remaining mostly unchanged in the placebo group. The change in platelet thromboxane A2 receptors correlated negatively with isoflavones serum concentration.

The authors concluded that there were no cardiovascular benefit from soy isoflavones. The beneficial effects of isoflavones in menopausal women could be more related to platelet function than to improving classical cardiovascular risk factors.

Phytoestrogens protect against lung cancer

[893]
Margaret R. Spitz and colleagues assessed the role of phytoestrogens and reduction of risk of lung cancer. They found that total phytosterols, isoflavones, lignans, and phytoestrogens were each associated with reductions in risk of lung cancer ranging from 21% for phytosterols; to 46% for total phytoestrogens from food sources onlyfor men abut only total phytoestrogens from food sources were effective against lung cancer in women. There were also significant joint effects found between hormone therapy use and phytoestrogen intake, such as the lignans enterolactone and enterodiol in women.

The authors concluded that their data provide further support for the limited but growing epidemiologic evidence that phytoestrogens are associated with a decrease in risk of lung cancer, however, more studies on this subject are needed.

Other bioactive food ingredients are:
Phosphatidylserine
Garlic

Ginseng extract: A new ginseng extract called Cold-fx was developed by a spin-off company of the University of Alberta, CV Technologies. I contains 80 per cent poly-furanosyl-pyranosyl-saccharides and 10 percent protein from the ginseng roots.

The North American ginseng (Panax quiquefolium) is used as raw material. A publication of the Canadian Medical Association Journal (173, issue 9) claims that the extract is a safe,effective prophylactic treatment for upper respiratory tract infections.

It may boost production of natural killer cell activity, thought to decrease susceptibility to frequent colds. Further studies on its efficacy and safety to children and immunocompromised populations were recommended.

The composition of the Asian or Korean ginseng (Panax Ginseng C.A. Meyer) should also be analysed to find new ways to boost the human immune system to counter pandemics of influenza like an avian influenza outbreak.

Ronald Turner from the University of Virginia School of Medicine in the same journal warned of the many pitfalls faced by clinical studies of natural remedies for viral infections. Since the proposed mechanism of action of ginseng on colds is unclear, and the active compounds have not been identified, even though the extract was standardized " it is possible that there is lot-to-lot variability for important phytochemical components that are not measured". Peptides
Lactic acid bacteria
Isoprenoids
Lecithin
St. John's wort whose claim is emotional balance.
Dietary fibre as they prevent constipation.
Polyunsaturated fats to help to lower cholesterol
Carnitine[998]
Carnitine was discovered in 1905 and is also called vitamin B$_{T}$. It is trimethylbetaine (beta-OH-gama-trimethylamino butyric acid). Long chain fatty acids are bind to carnitine which makes them able to cross the membrane of the mitochondrions and are there exposed to a beta-oxidation, it has a transmethylation and tyrosine effect. Carnitine has also a role in the oxidation but not in the transport of medium-chain fatty acids.[999]
Carnitine triggers the appetite and increases and bodyweight, the reason why it is being added to animal feed.

Biosynthesis of carnitine: The biosynthesis of carnitine which starts from lysine and methionine needs additional L-ascorbic acid and takes place in the liver. In case of an undersupply of vitamine C there will be very soon a drop of carnitine in the muscles resulting in weariness and weakness.[980]

Vitamine C is a cofactor of two dioxygenases reaction of the carnitine synthesis which needs also alpha-chetoglutarate. Guinea pigs with scurvy have low concentrations of carnitine in their blood. A low level of vitamine C reduces the availability of energy and the lipid metabolism due to a drop of carnitine.

Food as source of carnitine Parallel to biosynthesis of carnitine in the liver food acts as an additional source. Vegetarians have a daily intake of 2 mg carnitine and mixed food bring 32 mg daily intake.


Food Canitine
  mg in 100g
mutton 210
beef 70
pork 30
tomato 2.9
pear 2.7
pea 1.2
potato 0
carrot 0


Fifteen days of parenteral feeding leads to a drop of carnitine which cannot be compensated by biosynthesis. A carnitine substitution of 10 mg/day normalizes the concentration of carnitine in the serum and the beta-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. Hemodialysis drops carnitine about 50%. Feeding carnitine reduces the amount of free fatty acids in the serum as it is forwarded to the beta-oxidation.

Hepatocirrhosis low carnitine is due to a diminished biosynthesis and reduced intake of food.

Carnitine and sport: Carnitine is being used as supplement in the nutrition of athletes to increase performance. A positive effect has not been confirmed.[1000] It is considered as a non drug-doping substance but it is not on the ``red list''.
Folate
Psyllium to help to reduce cholesterol levels
Magnesium

Functional foods should taste good, be well prepared, and offer real benefits such as gastrointestinal function, antioxidant activity, micronutrients, positive activity on fetal and early life development.
On global market the functional foods will be sold under " Hard claims " [448] which are claims related to activities against diseases. " Soft claims " are used to describe preventive health claims.

Nutraceuticals are foods which can provide protection and/or treatment of diseases.

Fast food, Snacks and Finger Food are foods served in canteens, Bakery shops and snack bars having a great segment with classic sandwiches as a small meal and the "mediterranean range" like baguettes, croissants, pita bread and ciabatta.

Convenience Foods

[448]
Searching for new market segments Convenience Foods was increasingly considered to have great future. Convenient shops should sell small packages, ready to eat snacks.

They should include a coffee serve, have a post counter, a copy machine and very important for Germany: a counter for Toto-Lotto bets. All trials to install such a chain of such stores in Germany have failed mainly because of regulations concerning store opening time.

Convenience Foods however is being sold as frozen food ready to serve, frozen vegetables already seasoned, different frozen fish dishes.
A growing importance have convenience foods for restaurants and fast food restaurants as well as food industry which uses processed raw ware.
The trend of Convenience Foods lies not in new stores but to place these products together with standard packagings where the consumer can choose between different price and quality of products.

Food supplements

Food supplements are defined in a leaflet of the German Institute for consumer Health and Veterinary Medicine (Bundesinstitut für Gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV)
Food supplements are foods having one or more nutritional substances in concentrated form (mainly vitamins, minerals and trace elements), presenting a for food unusual form (pills or capsules etc.) Food supplements should be labeled as "Food supplement" together with the suggested daily intake.Food supplements are ruled by Food laws, in Germany by the LMBG ( Lebensmittel- und Bedarfsgegenständegesetz. they do not need a special release. Exception are dietary supplements , they do need a registration and a release.


Definition of Dietary Supplements according FDA

http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/list.html.
Dietary supplement is any product taken by mouth, that contains a so called dietary ingredientänd its label states that it is a dietary supplement. Dietary supplements may be presented in form of pills, tablets, capsules, liquids or powders.


Definition of Dietary Ingredients

Dietary ingredients are present in dietary supplements. They may include vitamins,minerals, herbs, and aminoacids as well as substances such as enzymes, organ tissues, metabolites extracts or concentrates. The producer of food supplements is responsible for health safety of his products. He has to avoid deceiving informations and disease related statements ( 17 and 18 LMBG).
Substances with pharmacological activities are not food supplements. They are ruled under pharmacy laws.

The BgVV says that well-balanced adequate nutrition is sufficient to feed the daily nutrients.An increase of wellness through food supplements is according to BgVV doubtful. An exception is iodine and folic acid.For these two elements there is an undersupply in Germany. It is therefore advisable to use iodine salt in kitchen, community provisioning, production of bread, backery products and meat derivates.


Folic acid

Is important in the prevention of neural tube defects in the early pregnancy and reduces plasma homocystein which can lead to atherosclerotic damage.


Cancer, the medicine flop, a statement of Dr. Lothar Weissbach,president of the German Cancer Society

Dr. med. Lothar Weissbach is president of the German Cancer Society. He is an authority in research and treatment of human cancer. He works in the "Krankenhaus am Urban" Berlin.

In an interview with Hans Halter published in"Der Spiegel"[685] made the following statement:

"Early identification of cancer is very expensive, but not very effective.The interactive work between different specialists doctors is unsufficient and reduces the chances of the patients. The genetherapy will come but it will be necessary that more patients are willing to participate in clinical studies.Experts await the begin of the genetherapy for 2.003 or 2005.
One hundred years ago there were 43.000 death per year in Germany, on end of 1999 there were 218.000 death of the same cause. This come from a growing age of the population. Cancer is a disease of high age (this is not correct in related to breast and lung cancer, see WHO statistics:-comment of OurFood.com-). Pancreas cancer und lung cancer cannot be treated. Prognosis is bad. It is true that in ten years cancer will be at place number one in the death causes in Germany. We are not prepared for this.
Main concern are death cases from lung cancer, bowel cancer and breast cancer which has increased about 20% after introduction of early detection checks.

We have to learn that we can cure only a small part of cancer diseases. The knowledge gets through that we have to detect cancer earlier and -better as that- we have to avoid cancer."
Better understanding of food physiology, better care of our environment and self discipline regarding smoking and alcohol consume can be a precious contribution to reduce risk of cancer.


Breast cancer and high fat diet

High fat diet may increase breast cancer risc according to the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The fat is not causal agent but instead causes depletion of an undiscovered essential agent that is normaly protective against breast cancer
Omportant factors engaged in the origine of breast cancer are:
1.- Deficiency, inadequate intake or depletion via a high fat diet.
2 - Age
3.-Estrogen.

Supplemented Foods

Isoflavonoids: Isoflavonoids are phytochemicals which are free radical scavangers and can be extracted from soy beans.
Supplementing foods with isoflavonoids can help to reinforce the positive action of nature.

Flavonoids, such as isoflavones, anthocyanidins and flavonols

Phytoestrogens are substances which are estrogen-like. They are sometimes called endocrine disrupters. Some hypothesis say that exogenous substances with estrogenic or otherhormonally active properties may adversely affect human health.[815]

Endocrine disruptors can be industrial contaminants, such as pesticides and plasticizers, and others are natural phytoestrogens found in plants such as soy and in herbal supplements.

They may cause male wild-life animals in water contaminated by detergent, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and herbicide to express female characteristics and other modifications. Human development can also be feminized by exposure to estrogenic chemicals, affect breast growth and lactation, and could have a role in uterine diseases such as fibroids and endometriosis.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals mostly exhibit estrogenic effects, but a few are anti-estrogenic or anti-androgenic,resulting in reduced fertility in breeding cattle. [816]
They are found in plants. Important phytoestrogens are ligans, isoflavones and coumetans.

Effect of phytoestrogens such as lignans on cancer risk

Lignans: They are found in flax seed (300 mg/100g), sesame seed (290 mg/100g), brassica vegetables (0,2-2 mg/100 g), red wine (0,09 mg/100 g). When part of the human diet, some lignans are metabolised to form mammalian lignans known as enterediol and enterolactone by intestinal bacteria. Lignans that can be metabolised to form mammalian lignans are pinoresinol, lariciresinol, secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, hydroxymatairesinol, syringaresinol and sesamin. [817]

Phytoestrogens may play a role in hormone-related diseases such as cancer, but epidemiological and clinical data are conflicting.

The mammalian lignans enterolactone and enterodiol are produced by the microflora in the colon of humans and animals from precursors in foods such as lignans. They have been suggested to have potential anticancer effects.

Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues in 2005 determined the production of mammalian lignans from precursors in food bars containing unground whole flaxseed and sesame seed. The authors demonstrated that precursors from unground whole flaxseed and sesame seed are converted by the bacterial flora in the colon to mammalian lignans. [818]

Sesame seed is not protective and negatively interferes with tamoxifen in inducing regression of established MCF-7 tumor size

[819]
Flaxseed enhances the tumor growth-inhibitory effect of tamoxifen, but sesame seed was found by Sandra M.Sacco and colleagues to have no effect on tumor and tend to negate the tumor-inhibitory effect of tamoxifen, reducing apoptosis. The authors concluded in a 2008 study that sesame seed is not protective and negatively interferes with tamoxifen in inducing regression of established MCF-7 tumor size.

The Waagening lignan study January 2008: Enteroligans do not protect against colorectal cancer.

[820]
Peter C.H. Hollaman and colleagues say that high plasma enterodiol or enterolactone concentrations do not reduce risk of colorectal cancer. Enterolignans are biphenolic compounds that possess several biologic activities whereby they may influence carcinogenesis.

Enterodiol and enterolactone are a product of the activity of the microflora of the colon metabolising lignans from plants such as flax seed, whole grain cereals, berries, vegetables and fruits. The authors stressed that plasma enterodiol and colorectal increased the risk of colorectal cancer among current smokers.
The results contradict the study published in 2006.


The Waagening lignan study June 2006: Enteroligans protect against colorectal cancer.

[821]
Peter C.H. Hollaman and colleagues reported in June 2006 a substantial reduction in colorectal adenoma risk among subjects with high plasma concentrations of enterolignans, in particular, enterodiol. The authors write that findings could be important in the prevention of colorectal adenomas.

Dietary flaxseed reduces tumor growth in patients with breast cancer.

[822]
Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues found in 2005 that dietary flaxseed, the richest source of mammalian lignan precursors, increased the apoptosis of cancer cells, increased urinary lignan excretion and reduced tumor biological markers in postmenopausal patients with newly diagnosed breast cancer.

The authors concluded that dietary flaxseed has the potential to reduce tumor growth in patients with breast cancer.

Flaxseed, soy protein isolates and their action on breast cancer cells

[823]
Previous study of Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues had found that flaxseed (FS) reduced while soy protein isolate (SPI) stimulated MCF-7 breast tumor growth in ovariectomized mice. In 2007 the authors found that combining SPI and FS resulted in a negation of SPI-induced tumor growth. Uterus weight was significantly increased by the SPI + FS group, while SPI alone induced an intermediate effect.

The authors concluded that although the SPI + FS and SPI groups exerted stimulatory effects on uterus weight, other histological parameters need to be measured to determine the overall safety of these breast cancer treatments on the uterus.

Flaxseed and soy protein isolates and their effect on breast cancer

[824]
In several epidemiological studies, a phytoestrogen-rich diet containing lignans and isoflavones is associated with reduced breast cancer risk, but experimental findings are controversial.

In 2006 Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues found that in mouse, ligans of flaxseed reduced breast cancer growth, while isoflavones from soy protein enhanced it. The combination of soy protein with flaxseed reduced the tumor growth.

The authors concluded that dietary flaxseed did not stimulate the growth of estrogen responsive MCF-7 cancers in mice, while long-term consumption of soy protein did, and flaxseed reduced the tumor growth stimulating effect of soy protein. Flaxseed is therefore being suggested to attenuate tumor growth.

The combination of flaxseed with soy reduce the growth stimulatory effect on established breast cancer

[825]
Concern over the safety of soy and its isoflavones are growing. Soy genistein was found to increase the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. According to Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues in july 2007 wrote that flaxseed with enterodiol and enterolactone, was found to negate the tumor stimulatory effects of soy protein or genistein alone.

The authors , analysing the findings of their study, concluded that soy should be consumed together with lignan-rich foods to avoid an increased risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Isoflavones:Isoflavones are polyphenolic compounds produced almost exclusively by the members of the Fabaceae/ Leguminosae (bean) family. Important isoflavones are genistein, daidzein, glycitein and formononetin. Soy products contain the highest amounts of isoflavone, followed by legumes, meat products and other processed foods, cereals and breads, nuts and oilseeds, vegetables, alcoholic beverages, fruits, and non alcoholic beverages. [826]

Coumetans: A known coumestan is the coumestrol. Coumestans are estrogen-like substances (phytoestrogens) made by some plants. Coumestans may have anticancer effects according to the U.S. National Cancer Institute.

A new coumestan, tephcalostan has been isolated from the whole plant of Tephrosia calophylla BEDD. together with two known flavonoids. [827]

Flavonoids, lignans and reduction of risk of breath cancer

[828]
Bryan Fink and colleagues investigated the association of dietary flavonoid intake with reduced risk of breast cancer in a population-based sample of US women. The authors found a decrease in breast cancer risk associated with flavonoid intake, most pronounced for flavonols, flavones, flavan-3-ols, and lignans in postmenopausal women.

The authors conclude that women consuming sufficient levels of flavonoids may benefit from their potential chemopreventive effects. Flavonoids antioxidants may thus reduce mortality among postmenopausal in breast cancer patients [829]

Brian Fink from the University of North Carolina states, write in another publication, that his team found that the breath-cancer mortality in postmenopausal women may be reduced in association with high levels of dietary flavones and isoflavones. No reduction of risk was found in premenopausal women.

Flavonoids and flavanones reduce oral and paryngeal cancer

[830]
Rossi and colleagues 2007 in a study found that the intake of flavonoids was inversely related to the risk of various common neoplasms, but scanty data exist on oral and pharyngeal cancer. The authors applied data on food and beverage content of six major classes of flavonoids, for flavanones, for flavonols, and for total flavonoids. In this study no significant association emerged for isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, and flavones. The inverse relations with total flavonoids and flavanones was significant, whereas that with flavonols were nonsignificant.


Health benefits of flavonoids from citrus fruits

Enzymatic modification of the citrus flavonoid hesperidin improves bioavailability in humans

[831]

Hesperidin is the predominant polyphenol from citrus fruits and juices, but it has reduced bioavailability due to the rutinoside moiety attached to the flavonoid.

In a study by Nielsen and colleagues 2006 the rhamnose group was removed to yield the corresponding flavonoid glucoside improving the bioavailability of the aglycone hesperetin.

The authors concluded that the bioavailability of hesperidin was modulated by enzymatic conversion to hesperetin-7-glucoside, thus changing the absorption site from the colon to the small intestine.


Hesperidin and naringin from orange and grape fruits can lead to reductions in cholesterol levels in lab animals

[832]
Shela Gorinstein and colleagues 2007 compared the influence of hesperidin and naringin, the main flavonones of plasma antioxidant activity increasing flavonones.


Flavanones from citrus fruits may help to treat neurovegetative diseases

[833]
According to Sam-Long Hwang and Gow-Chin Yen 2007 the citrus flavanones hesperidin, hesperetin, and neohesperidin from cirus fruits, have neuroprotective effects against H$_{2}$O$_{2}$-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells. The flavanones protect against oxidative stress , playing thus a neuroprotective role. Citrusfruits fruits have potential as functional foods for neuroprotectione.

The authors suggest the use of these flavanones in the intervention for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease,

Soy as supplement in infant formulas

Soy as a supplement or replacement for maternal breast milk or cow's milk in infant formulas is becoming increasingly important. Antioxidant effects of isoflavones from soy, such as genistein, daidzein, and glycitein had been seen as some of good merits of soy.

However, according to ongoing discussions phytoestrogens in soy infant formulas may have an adversely affect human growth, development, or reproduction.

Genistein beside its antioxidant effect is also a phytoestrogen which may be hazardous to human development or reproduction. Concerns about oestrogen effects of genistein in human body are being discussed. [834]

A summary of the bibliography related to soy and Genistein in the management of menopause-related symptoms is given by Nelson HD. [835].

The outcomes of a discussion, leaded by US Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR) of the National Institute of Environmental Health Services (NIEHS) and National Toxicology Program in March 2006, were:

When given orally, there was no threat from the reproductive and developmental effects of soy, supporting the safety of soy isoflavone dietary supplements. The effects of genistein in relation to heart disease or cancer risk, were not explored by the panelists.

One member of the pannel, however called for greater caution on this matter.

Soy Isoflavones are known for acting similarly to natural estrogens as well as performing protective functions within our bodies. When estrogen levels are low, Isoflavones and other phyto-estrogens bring the body to state of equilibrium. This balanced state reduces the effect of estrogen on our bodies' cells and therefore reduces the risk of estrogen linked cancers.

Functions of Genistein
Genistein as antioxidant reduces the risk for arteriosclerosis minimizing peroxidation and prevets thus LDL cholesterol being absorbed by aarterial walls.

Genistein blocks the enzime tyrosinereducing the risk of cancer. Breat and prostata cancer are also being said to be reduced by genistein.

Functions of daidzein
Daidzein has little estrogen activity but is very effective as antioxidant. It was linked to reduction of risk of mammary tumors and reduction of risk of osteoporosis.

Functions of glycitein
Glycitein has the greatest estrogenic activity levels of all the Isoflavones when measured in vivo. It is the most easily absorbed Isoflavone.

Special purpose value added soybeans

[836] Scientists are searching the loci controlling the accumulation of specific soybean isoflavones.

Reducing unwanted isoflavones while enhancing beneficial isoflavones could be a key-breeding target. Manipulation of isoflavone contents and profiles will result in the creation of special purpose value added soybeans.

Future research needs to focus on the production of a cultivar that consistently produces 5-6 mg/g of total isoflavone, with a white hilum and non-GMO herbicide resistance for the international soy protein isolate market.

Beneficial health claims for soy [837] Phytoestrogen supplements have become popular as alternatives for hormone replacement therapy based on their potential as prevention of hormonedependent diseases. Isoflavonoids found in legumes, such as soybeans, are converted by intestinal bacteria to metabolites with increased or decreased estrogenic activity.

Microbial biotransformation plays a central role in regulating the biological activity of isoflavonoid phytoestrogens. They can convert them to potent estrogens or break them to nonestrogenic metabolites.

Microbial activities are also involved in prolonging enterohepatic circulation of isoflavonoids by decongugation of the liver isoflavonoid metabolites.

These activities result in delay in excretion, consequently prolonging the period of exposure of target tissues, such as reproductive organs. Detection of the specific bacteria from the human intestinal tract that are involved in the metabolism of phytoestrogens has been the subject of this study.

Specific bacteria involved in biotransformation of three natural isoflavonoids, biochanin A, formononetin and glycitein, to their primary more estrogenic metabolites (genistein, daidzein, and 6,7,4'-trihydroxyisoflavone) by demethylation, which also enhances their absorption, have been found.
One of the reasons for the lack of beneficial effect of phytoestrogens has been their conversion by bacteria to nonestrogenic metabolites.

FDA has granted the petition for a claim that the use of soy protein is safe, however, it still does not have a ruling on isoflavonoids for consumers. In addition to advancing the study of phytoestrogen metabolism, the data obtained provide background information that FDA can use when evaluating data on the beneficial or detrimental effects of phytoestrogens for regulatory purposes.


Catechin in chocolate

Catechin


Pine bark

Pine bark of Finland is according to the producer of Vitabak rich on bioflavonids. The content of bioflavonids of the bark rises as one gets in north direction.

Composition of 1 g bark:
Flavonoids 33,4 mg
Calcium 680 mg
Iron 270 mg
Magnesium 250 mg
Zinc 89 mg
and 61% of fibres.

The University of Kuopio has started a research about LDL-Cholesterol reducing properties of Vitabark.
14 g of bark powder were given daily in form of bread to a special group. After one week blood cholesterol lowered about 17%.
Many bioflavonoids have a very bitter taste and are therefore generaly taken as supplements in time-release tablets or in capsules that will not dissolve radily in mouth.
Bioflavonoids are water-soluble substances associated with materials that often appear in fruits and vegetables as companions to vitamin C.According to Dr. Z. Zloch of Charles University in Czechoslovakia the antioxidant activity of bioflavonoids seems to result from their unique chemical structure; they act as reducing agents which are transported to the site where vitamin C is to be stored in the cell.
There is an increased uptake of vitamin C into the liver, kidney and adrenal gland when bioflavonoids were administrated with vitamin C. There is also an increased protection of the vitamin C against oxidation because the bioflavonoids convert the ascorbic acid to a less active form as dehydroascorbate.
Decrease in blood cholesterol in animals treated with vitamin C together with bioflavonoids was also noted by Dr. Zloch. The decrease was not so high when vitamin C was used without bioflavonoids[838].

Small changes in nutritional patters may increase ischemic heart disease risk [839]
Il Suh and colleages found in a study published in 2001 that in China dietary fat intake increased from 15.9% of energy in 1982 to 21.1% in 1990; ischemic heart disease incidence and mortality also increased.
Mortality from ischemic heart disease among Koreans has increased 5- to 6-fold during the past decade. the average fat intake of Koreans increased during the same period: from 14% of energy in 1986 to 19% of energy in 1997. This increased dietary intake may affect the incidence of ischemic heart disease.
The authors of the study conclude that in a population with a relatively low fat intake, a moderate increase in total fat intake may be a risk factor for ischemic heart disease.


Enzymes

Enzymes are active substances which are produced by living organismn which may act on chemical reactions in living cells or outside. Enzymes are proteines with low molecular active group with strong binding called prostetic group or with weak binding and easy to split off group called coenzyme
Examples of enzymes are lipases (enzymes which split fats), proteases (enzymes which split proteines)
Enzymes are used in industrial technology and in colorimetrical methodes for the determination of specific substances in foodstuffs.

Vitamins

Vitamins, such as beta-carotene acting as an antioxidant and indirect source of vitamin A give can supplement foods turning color yellow to red (Lucarotin 10 CWD G/R from BASF, red provitamin A).
Supplemented antioxidant drinks are also labeled as A-C-E drinks.

Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in children and is a risk of severe infections disease, heart disease, skin cancer, prostate cancer, and arthritis. Plant foods may contain provitamin A pigments such as alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin that ore converted to vitamin A by the body.

Globally, it is estimated that 140-250 million children under five years of age are affected by vitamin A deficiency. These children suffer a dramatically increased risk of death, blindness and illness, especially from measles and diarrhoea. The WHO calls for a combination of breast feeding, dietary improvement, food fortification, and supplementation. [737]

Vitamin A reduction of inflammation [735]
Kurt Long from Harvard School of Public Health aand colleagues studied the effect of vitamin A (retinol) supplements on levels of the molecule, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), which is associated with a state of increased inflammation and is also involved in the pathogen-specific mucosal immune response.

Children who received the vitamin A supplement were found to have reduced fecal concentrations of MCP-1 compared with children in the placebo group.

The supplementation also reduced MCP-1 levels in children with infections, like the bacteria Escherichia coli or the human roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides.

The authors conclude that vitamin A has an anti-inflammatory effect in the gastrointestinal tract by reducing MCP-1 concentrations.

Retinol [736] [738] [738] Retinol is the dietary form of vitamin A. It is fat soluble and is found mainly in fish liver oils, liver, egg yolks, butter, and cream. Retinol is ingested in a precursor form; animal sources are milk and eggs in form of retinyl esters.

Green leafy and yellow vegetables such as spinach and carrots contain beta-carotene and other provitamin carotenoids, which are converted to retinal in the mucosal cells of the small intestine. Retinal is reduced to retinol, then esterified as retinyl palmitat. Most of the body's vitamin A is stored in the liver as retinyl palmitate. It is released into the circulation as retinol Hydrolysis of retinyl esters results in retinol while pro-vitamin A carotenoids can be cleaved to produce retinal which can be reduced to retinol.

Biologic equivalents
Biologic equivalents, for diets with different proportions of retinol and beta-carotene, are as follows: 1 USP U equals 1 IU; 1 IU equals 0.3 microg of retinol; 1 microg of beta-carotene equals 0.167 microg of retinol.

Other provitamin carotenoids are half as active as beta-carotene, because they have only one un-substituted font beta end group.

Beta-cryptoxanthin: Beta-cryptoxanthin can be found in many vegetables and fruits, mainly in papaya, mango, peaches, oranges, tangerines, bell peppers, corn and watermelon. Beta-cryptoxanthin is also found in some yellow coloured animal products such as egg yolk and butter, and is told to be the main source of provitamin A.

Production of beta-cryptoxanthin [738]
According O. Serrato-Joya from the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at the Technological Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, beta-cryptoxanthin has been neglected because most of the information were focused on b-carotene alone. This was due to the lack of suitable analytical techniques, and alternative viable processes for production.

O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues describe a process producing beta cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.

O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues from the Technology Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, describe a process producing beta-cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids

The eicosapentaen acid and docosahexaen acid are essential fatty acids.They are available only in form of fatty fish like mackerel, herring , salmon . An undersupply of omega-3 PUFA is therefore possible and the search for this essential fatty acids in plants and microorganism is being started. Microencapsulated omega-3 fatty acids are used in healthy diets and in prevention of cardiovascular diseases, supplement bakery products,pasta, breakfast cereals, ready-made meals, soups,dairy products and baby food.
Microencapsulated omega-3 high unsaturated fatty acids have neutral taste, without smell and are protected from oxidation.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids help to prevent cardiovascular diseases, hypertonia, Diabetes mellitus. They also act against inflammation and allergic diseases like psoriasis.
omega-3 PUFA are important for neurophysiological functions and brain and vision development of newborn.The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of depressions is being studied.


Classification of omega-3 fatty acids

The classification of omega-3 PUFA regards:
1.- The number of C-atoms of the molecule,
2.- The number of unsaturated links,
3.- The position of the first double link in relation to the methyl end of the fatty acid.
The structure of omega-6 PUFA is given below as they are often seen in relation with omega-3 PUFA:
\includegraphics[width=300bp, height=200bp, angle=0]{library/Omega6.eps}
Most important omega-6 PUFA are: linoleic acid, gama- linolenic acid, dihomo-gama-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid.
Structure of omega-3 PUFA:
\includegraphics[width=300bp, height=200bp, angle=0]{library/Omega3.eps}
Most important omega-3 PUFA are: alfa- linolenic acid (C18:3), eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA, and docosahexaen acid (C22:6) DHA,
Alfa linolenic acid can be changed to EPA only up to 15% in human physiology and only 4% can be change to DHA That is why about 50 g daily of rapeseed oil can substitute only 50 to 100 g fat fish in a week.
The transformation rate depends on the type of the nutrition. A high intake of linoleic acid and saturated fatty acids in relation to alfa-linolenic acid can strongly reduce synthesis of omega-3 fatty acids.

Alfa-Linolenic acid is available in green leaf vegetables,nuts, and some vegetable oils such as rapeseed oil, soya oil, wheat germ oil and walnut oil.

Linseed is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, being 40 to 60% alfa- linolenic from total oil. Linseed has therefore found its place in baking industry with 6 - 8% from dry weight in all types of bread.Linseed can also be used as animal feed to produce alfa- linolenic enriched foods like Eggs, butter, cheese and meat.

Feeding animals with linseed or linseed oil an increase of alfa- linolenic fatty acid is achieved.Feeding them with fish oil or seaweeds enriched with omega-3 fatty acids leads to an increase of DHA.


Eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA

Phytoplankton is the nutrition of fish of cold water and is the source of EPA and DHA (DHA = docosahexaen acid). Fish farming of eel, trout and salmon may produce a fish with reduced omega-3 fatty acids because of different nutrition. That is why fish from natural sources are of superior quality compared with fish from farms.

Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA are being produced microencapsulated using carbohydrates or protein basis such as maltodextrin, beta- cyclodextrin, egg white, gelatine or caseinate as covering film. In this way they can be added to beverages like orange juice.

Researches are being made to find other sources of omega-3.PUFA using single cells such as Crypthecodinum cohnii ( Dinoflagellata), Mortierella elongata (fungus), Schizochrytium (Microalgae).

The DART Study[739] and the Lyon Diet Heart-Study [740] have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acids have a protective activity against cardiac infarct using 200-400 g fat saltwater fish/week, or 3 times 0,5g/day fish oil and a diet rich in fruits and vegetables and little amount of meat and milk products.

Beginning with 1800 with the industrial era the nutrition changed. Total fat, saturated fats and omega-6 fatty acids increased rapidly and starting at 1930 trans-fatty acids as a result from hydration increased the unhealthy side, meanwhile healthy omega-3 fatty acids decreased constantly beginning with 1900.

According to DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung ) the intake of fat for an adult should be reduced to 30 to 35%. essential fatty acids should be 3,5% of total energy and should be distributed between 3% omega-6 and 0,5% omega-3 fatty acids. The quotient between the two should be 5:1. The amount of omega-3 fatty acids should be approximately 1 g/day.

European estimates indicate that only Portugal and Spain have an intake over 1 g/d. Germany has an undersupply of omega-3 fatty acids of only 1/3 of the necessary daily intake. Netherlands despite being known for herring fishery has an intake of only 1/5 of the necessary daily amount.

Target group for food enriched with omega-3 fatty acids should be early or newborn, pregnant women, nursing mothers and persons with cardiovascular diseases

Improved absorption of omega-3 fatty acids by pre-emulsification [741]
Plummer and colleagues (2007) studying the absorption of omega-3 fatty acid, found that pre-emulsifying a blend of a standardized oil increases significantly the postprandial plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) and the C18:3 (n-6), C18:3(n-3), C20:5(n-3) and C22:6 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels. C16:0