Subsections

Food, what is it?


Milk and dairy products

Milk and dairy products are an important source of proteins , calcium and vitamins.They are ideal baby food therefore is this product of great importance.
The production of milk is worldwide concentrating in very few big companies. This increases quality through modern know how destroying however the small decentralized factories.

The very big international dairy food producers

[165]
  Enterprise Seat of Sales Mio
    the Head US Dollar
1 Nestlé Ch 13.500
2 Kraft (Philip Morris) USA 8.000
3 Dairy Farmers of America USA 6.900
4 Danone F 5.800
5 Friesland Coberco Dairy Food NL 5.500
6 Besnier F 5.100
7 Snow Brand Milk Products J 5.000
8 Campina Melkunie/MKW NL 4.800
9 Bongrain F 4.600
10 Meji Milk Products J 4.000


Milk Calcium

[290] Milk is a natural source of calcium. Unfortunately young people drink less milk and more carbonated drinks increasing a possible undersupply of calcium. The decline in use of dairy products along with the increase of osteosporosis has boosted the fortification of food and beverages with o calcium all over the world [312]. Calcium sources are: But none of these sources have the same high bio availability as milk and their derivates.That is why milk should be carefully protected against pollution and diseases such as BSE.


Bio availability of calcium

[319] One liter skim or full fat milk contains 1.200 mg calcium.About 30% of it is available to humans.
The availability of calcium depends largely of it being soluble.
Mineral water is a good source of calcium being present in soluble form.In dietary supplements the availability of calcium can be differ from case to case.
The bio availability of calcium in vegetables is smaller as from milk.
In milk calcium is linked with other components which avoid reactions as insoluble salts. Daily intake of calcium :
Adults = 800 mg
Infants =1.200 mg
To keep bones strong magnesium as well as calcium and vitamin D are needed.
The ratio of calcium and magnesium is important.Too much calcium and two little magnesium makes blood more apt to clot, leading to heart attack.

The proper ratio is half as much magnesium as calcium.It is believed that old people get only one-fourth as much magnesium as calcium, specifically if they take calcium supplements.
An intake of 1.200 milligrams of calcium per day demands 600 mg of magnesium [290].
A separate supplement of 200 to 300 mg per day seems to be good.Dr. Seelig insists that the daily intake of magnesium should be about 500 milligrams [313].

Food milligram calcium
A glass of skim milk 300
A cup of low fat Yogurt 415
Kale very rich in calcium
Tofu high content of calcium

Daily calcium intake:

[166] The Institute of Medicine released a report listing the requirements for daily calcium intake. How much calcium a person needs to maintain good health varies by age group. Recommendations from the report are shown in the following table.

Age group Amount of calcium to consume
  daily, in milligrams (mg)
   
0-6 months 400 mg
6-12 months 600 mg
1-5 years 800 mg
6-10 years 1,200 mg
11-24 years 1,200-1,500 mg
19-50 years 1,000 mg
51-70+ years 1,500 mg

In addition, pregnant and nursing women need between 1,200 and 1,500 mg of calcium daily.


Pollutants in milk and dairy products

Pesticides and aflatoxins in milk have their origin in imported animal feed.
The fat soluble pesticides like polychlorated hydrocarbons can contaminate easily milk, heavy metals are very seldom found in milk because they have low solubility.

All efforts should be made to avoid contamination because milk is used to feed children, dairy products such as cheese or yoghurt are consumed in large scale. Contagious diseases like BSE should therefore be avoided through rigorous epidemiological measures.

Pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides herbicides, hexachlorobenzene ( HCB ) and isomers of hexachloro cyclohexane ( HCH )are used in agriculture or are found on the fields.

Even with low concentration of pesticides in animal feed the milk may be heavily affected because liposoluble pesticides usually store in the body of animals and can be detected in the milk in high level.

Mycotoxines such as aflatoxin B1 may be present in ground peanuts or cotton seeds.The cows changes the aflatoxin B1 to aflatoxin M1.
This is why animal feed should be protected against deterioration. Contaminated or spoiled food should not be given to animals.
Chlorated hydrocarbon such as Polychlorated biphenyl(PCB) were used in the past in transformers, refrigerators, in hydraulic oil and as all round chemicals. Its level in milk has decreased after the use of PCB has been reduced.

Other chlorated hydrocarbons such as polychlorated dibenzodioxine ( PCDD ) and polychlorated dibenzofurane ( PCDF ) are also present in the human milk and in the milk of cows, but not as high as Chlorine hydrocarbons ( HCB, DDT and PCB ).

Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury are of small importance because its concentration in milk is low.


Radioactive pollution of milk

In Europe the nuclear accident of Tschernobyl hat caused an considerable increase of radioactivity in milk and milk products in 1986.

The amount of radioactive material which was liberated into the atmosphere was several times the amount liberated by the Hiroschima bomb in 1945. Immediately after the accident due to west bounded winds there were the following radionuclides found in West Europe:

Iodine-131, cesium-134 and cesium-137. There was a small amount of Strontium-90.Strontium, which is even today very high in Brazil nuts of the Amazon region originated from nuclear bomb test in Nevada, USA in the forties. The radioactive pollution was carried through the Stratosphere and came down as fall-out in the rain forest.

These incidents show how carefully radioactivity should be handled.
In milk the nuclides are concentrated in the whey and remain there. That is why whey powder was highly contaminated causing headlines. The contamination with Strontium 90 in butter was low.

In whey powder due to the concentration, radioactivity can increase from 200 Bq/liter to 7.200 Bq/kg. In 1986 500 tons of whey powder were discarded in in Germany having high radioactivity resulting from the concentration of cesium.In cheese the remaining cesium is very little.
After some weeks only cesium -134 and cesium -137 was left.

Low levels of radioactivity is told to increases the efficiency of the DNA repair-system an increases the activity of the immune system[167]. This is not valid for radionuclide in food because they are deposited in bones and organs and with the time this material is being concentrated in the body. Damage of cells are than possible.
Therefore radioactivity in food should be kept as low as possible.


Cheese

The different types of cheese are made from sour milk, separation of the whey and inoculating special bacteria or moulds creating the characteristic flavor of each sort.
The following bacteria and moulds are being used in dairies:


Microorganism used in
Lactic acid bacteria cottage cheese, fresh cheese
Propionic acid bacteria Emmental cheese, Appenzeller cheese
Yellow- and red cultures Münster cheese, Romadur cheese
Pennicillium camemberti (white) Camembert cheese and brie
Pennicillium roqueforti ( blue/green) Roquefort, Gorgonzola
   
Some bacteria, such as some kinds of lactic acid bacteria built toxic products such as biogenic amines in cheese. [264]
Biogenic amines found as mg/Kg Cheese
Tyramine Tyramine 86 Camembert
Tryptamine Tyramine 180 Brie
Cadaverine Tyramine 225 Emmentaler
Putrescine Tyramine 72 - 1.416 Cheddar
  Phenylethylamine 2.000 - 4.000 Cheddar
  Histamine up to 2.300 Roquefort
       


Whey:

Traditionally, whey was a by-product with a negative value from cheese production. Sport nutrition and functional food market increase the demand of whey protein concentrates and isolates.

Whey protein concentrates:

Food industry uses for baking and other uses whey protein powders with 30-40 per cent protein, high amounts of lactose and fat.

Whey protein concentrates:

Reducing lactose with ultra-filtration processing the content of protein can be elevated up to 70-80 percent and an increased content of fat.

Whey Protein isolates (WPIs):

They contain 90- 96 per cent protein, minimal lactose and almost no fat, and are obtained using ion exchange columns or micro/nanofiltration "cross flow micro filtered process" using high tech ceramic filters. Some vital peptides such as lactoferrin, alpha lactalbumin, immunoglobulins, beta lactoglobin have been removed from whey protein isolates using ion exchange. Nanofiltration, however, retains valuable peptide fractions.

Biogenic amines

Biogenic amines are present in low concentrations in human, animals and plants. They have regulating functions, acting on the nervous system.

Bacteria can produce biogenic amines decarboxilating amino acids in food. Biogenic amines can be produced by Bacillus, Clostridium, Hafnia, Klebsiella, Morganella morganii, Proteus, Lactobacillus such as Lactobacillus buchneri and Lactobacillus delbrueckii in cheese, Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus growing on fish, meat and their products. They are found also in fermented food, like cheese, camembert, wine, beer, sauerkraut and yeast extract.

The concentration of biogenic amines in spoiled food can be toxic.
Biogenic amines of importance are: Histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine. Phenylethylamine is also found in chocolate and acts together with coffeine and theobromine vitalizing. , and spermidine.

Toxicology of histamine

Biogene amines cn be particularly dangerous in people taking monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, an older class of antidepressant pill, ecause they can potentially interact with the medication and cause dangerously high blood pressure.

Regulations:

In Germany there is a maximum of 200 mg/kg histamine in fish established.In 10 samples the average should be under 100 mg/Kg.

In Switzerland there are 100 mg histamine/Kg fish permitted and a maximum of 500 mg/Kg are established. In wine Switzerland has 10 mg/l a tolerable value of histamine in wine.

Tyramine

Tyramine rises blood pressure and causes headaches. It is formed in rockeford cheddar and cheese with white moulds.

Tyrosine-decarboxylase is build by many bacteria such as Streptococcus of the serological group D ( Enterococcus), many Clostridium, some strains of Escherichia coli and many types of Proteus and some lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus.


Pollutants in milk and dairy products

[271] In Bavaria,(south of Germany) the pollutants in milk and dairy products are being controlled over 25 years by the laboratory muva kempten (Veterinary medical analytical office of Kempten). This laboratory has monitored the organochlor-pesticides, PCB, halogenated solvents and heavy metals.

The results of these analysis made it possible to find the cause and to reduce the contamination. At the moment most of the former pollutants of organochlor-pesticides have fallen below detection level in milk from Bavaria. Only lindan is still increased.
This is an example of handling the environment problems making long terms monitoring of food with the cooperation of the laboratory the agriculture and the industry.

The muva kempten now checks organochlor-pesticides (OCP) polychlorated biphenyles (PCB) dioxines, halogenated solvents, mycotoxines, heavy metals, radionuclides, phtalates, nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon substances, organophosphor- and pyrethroid-pesticides using multi methods of preparation of the material, GC-PND and GS-MS. These methods enables the muva kempten to analyse all kind of food.

One important concern of the laboratory is the contamination of food caused by migration of packing components into the food, such as styrol from polystyrol, dioxines from cardboard, plasticiser, heavy metals, nitrosamines from rubber, and (Bisphenyl-A-diglycidilether) Problems which come from coating of tin cans.
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Organic migrations are detected by GC-MS and HPLC and AAS and inorganic ions migrations with AAS.About 70% of canned food were found to be contaminated with BADGE and BFDGE (Bisphenol-A-diglycidilether) according to the French magazine "test achat".Heavy contamination was found in cans containing fish and foods with high amount of acid like lemon, vinegar or tomatoes.
The European Commission made has completed in early 1999 a study concerning the safety of BADGE. According to this Study there is no danger coming from BADGE. Therefore the Commission rose the maximum allowed amount of BADGE in foods from 20 microgram in one kilogram up to 1 milligram in one kilogram food.This was intended only for tin cans coated with plastics. As there are no limits established for for coatings with clear varnish many countries use this high value also for varnished cans.
The toxicology of BFDGE and the catabolic products of BADGE and BFDGE are still unknown.

Recommendations to reduce BADGE and BFDGE:

"test achat" recommends to change from canned food to food in glass packaging. Discarding the immersion brine can further reduce BADGE and BFDGE. Contamination of cleaning and disinfection agents are also possible as contaminants of food. This has to be monitored.

The cooperation between official supervision of food, agriculture and industry has brought good results in research and improvements since repressive rules of supervision had been changed to open discussion and mutual good will of all parts engaged in the long way from farming to the consumer.


Contaminants in baby food:

[294] In baby food were found for health dangerous phtalate DBP and DEHP.
These contaminants were found in the milk used for these products.

All efforts should be made to reduce or even to avoid the possibility of contamination of the milk on its origin.


More safety for food:

The French President Jacques Chirac after the latest affairs of food poisoning has suggested the creation of an international board for food security. The board should contain scientist of high reputation. Chirac spoke with US president Bill Clinton which assured the cooperation from US.

New bacterology tools for enhanced food safety

New DNA tools developed by the Agence Fransaise de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, together with other French food laboratories have demonstrated that dominant bacterial population of fresh milk was Lactobacillus lactis. This bacterium is commonly used as a starter culture in dairy. It is not harmful. After 24 hours of refrigeration at 4$^{o}C$ psychotrofic bacteria such as Listeria spp and Aeromonas hydrophila emerge. These psichotrofic bacteria are life threatening in cheese products.

DNA using temporal gel electrophoresis TTGE and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Bacterial identification was facilitated by comparision with a bacterial reference database which had been established with DNA fragments of pure bacterial strains.

The results contribute to the knowledge on the bacterial flora of raw milk samples and also describe the consequences of a simple process, milk refrigeration, on the quality of dairy products and its impact on health.[2189]

Novel Food, Nutraceuticals,Functional Foods, Fast Food, Snacks, Finger Food


Novel Foods:

are foods which can be assigned to special types of foods such as genetic modified foods,genetic modified organism and their products, new molecular structures or new technological procedures.Foods which are regulated by the Novel Food Regulation of the European Community have to pass a complicated license procedure.


Functional foods

are foods which have a positive action upon the health of the consumer. The origin of functional food lies im Japan.

Increasing sales of probiotic yoghurt and dairies have boosted the hope of massive profits with functional foods health ingredients, isoflavones, Aloe vera, probiotic bacteria and dietary fibre. It is called " up trading " of the product. Up trading is the rise of quality to achieve better prices.


Functional Food, Nutrition, Nutriceuticals

All these words are used by marketing to boost selling. It is true that fibre can be useful to reduce blood cholesterol or calcium can help to reduce the risk of osteoporosis and vitamins can strengthen the immune system.
The truth is that it does not work.

The consumer is taken to believe that everything is all right when he takes a calcium enriched drink , sometimes with 4 or 5 added synthetic vitamins.

These foods cannot substitute natural nutrition rich in vegetables, fruits and fat reduced meals and whole-meal bread which was the nutrition at the beginning of the 20 th century. The German Nutrition Society (DGE) says that for an average population there is no need of supplements, functional foods or whatsoever when enough vegetables, fruits, fish and whole-meal bread are eaten and low fat nutrition is observed.

Publicity around one-sided modified foods give the consumer a wrong feeling of safety. He things that " he finally can feel well all round " drinking some special stuff of functional drinks which now come on market and does not need to get classic foods which bear all these ingredients together with thousands of other components.
José Lutzenberger a Brazilian Nobel-Price bearer and Franz-Theo Gottwald in their book Ernährung in der Wissensgesellschaft, CAMPUS EXPO 2000 Hannover in their vision about world nutrition say that the global distribution of food and growing modification of food by mighty companies destroy the natural resources of the world.

Many products which are on market and claim to be functional food have only calcium added claiming for health. The supply of Calcium can easily achieved drinking milk or eating yoghurt.
Hannu Salovaara, professor of grain technology at the University of Helsinki says:"It is not new knowledge that foods may also have a healthy activity. In the discussion about Functional Food does one sells only old wine in new tubes?".


Fruits and vegetables, protective factors

There are no evidences that isolated or in combination given antioxidants have a preventive activity against cancer or cardiac infarction
The protective activity which is being found in natural food must therefore be active only in a natural system or in combinations with other active compounds presenting synergic effects.

One should however not forget the preventive effect of folic acid during pregnancy preventing neural tube defects of the newborn (spina bifida and hydrocephalus). (400microg folic acid/day) [1335].

Folic acid fortification of cereal products:

Folate deficiency in early pregnancy is linked to increased risk of neural tube defects or spina bifida and anencephaly in infants. Since 1998 all US all grain products are fortified with folic acid. There is an ongoing debate in UK to fortify flour with folic acid. The Ireland's National Committee on Folic Acid Fortication recommended that most white, brown and wholemeal breads sold in the country be fortified with 120 micrograms of folic acid per 100g of bread. Food Standards Australia New Zealand made a proposal top fortify all bread-making flour with folic acid.

Results of folate study adverse to a fortification of food with folic acid

[1339]
Van Guelpen and colleagues found that plasma folate concentrations were strongly positively related to colorectal cancer CRC risk.

They concluded that their findings suggest a decreased CRC risk in subjects with low folate status. This possibility of a detrimental component to the role of folate in carcinogenesis could have implications in the ongoing debate in Europe concerning mandatory folate fortification of foods.

Folic acid supplementation of bread or flower

The UK Food Standards Agency recommended that bread or flower to be fortified with folic acid to reduce the number of cases of neural tube defects (spina bifida) (March 2007). [1345]

The Institute of Food Research (IFR) warns of possible adverse effects of fortifying food with folic acid. According to Anthony Wright and colleagues, folates are metabolised in the gut, and folic acid is metabolised in the liver, which could easily become saturated. Supplementation may result in unmetabolised folic acid to enter the systemic circulation, since human liver's low capacity for reduction may eventually give rise to saturation. [1341]

Supplementation of Bread flower and cereals in USA and Canada:

The FDA published in 1996 regulations requiring the addition of folic acid to enriched breads, cereals, flours, corn meals, pastas, rice, and other grain products.

Suplementation in UK:

The Foof Standards Agency considered mandatory fortification in 2002. However, the Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) opposed to the fortification and issued an advice on the introduction of mandatory fortification of flour with folic acid at current states saying that it beside reducing the risk of NTD-affected pregnancies in the UK, it would also increase the proportion of people in the population at risk of exceeding folic acid intakes above the UL/day and the number of people aged 65 years and over with low vitamin B12 status at risk of consuming more than 1mg/day of folic acid. The advice was linked to the condition that there be controls on voluntary fortification, and clear guidance be given on the appropriate use of supplements containing folic acid. [1342]

According to Kim and Solomons 2007, recent studies suggest that folic acid supplementation and fortification may promote the progression of already existing, undiagnosed, preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions. These observations are based on the increase in colon cancer diagnoses in the US and Canada. [1343]

Unmetabolised folic acid accelerates cognitive decline in the elderly with low vitamin B12 status. Dietary folates have a protect against cancer, but folic acid supplementation may increase the incidence of bowel cancer and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. [1344]

Folic acid and Folate

[1345]

Folate:

is a generic term for a family of B-group vitamins. There are large numbers of naturally occurring folates but methyl- and formyltetrahydropteroylpolyglutamates are the main forms found in foods.

Folic acid:

(pteroylmonoglutamic acid) is a synthetic form used in supplements and food fortification. Sometimes it is colled Vitamin B9.

Suplementation with folic acid:

The reference nutrient intake (RNI) is the amount of a nutrient that is considered sufficient to meet the requirements of 97.5% of the population. The lower reference nutrient intake (LRNI) is the amount of a nutrient that is considered sufficient to meet the requirementsof 2.5% of the population.

For adults, the RNI for folate is 200microg/day and the LRNI is 100microg/day. For infants and children, the RNIs are: 0-12 months, 50microg/day; 1-3 years, 70microg/day; 4-6 years, 100microg/day; 7-10 years, 150microg/day; the RNI for children 11 years and above is the same as that for adults. The LRNIs for infants and children are: 0-12 months, 30microg/day; 1-3 years, 35microg/day; 4-6 years, 50microg/day; 7-10 years, 75microg/day; the LRNI for children 11 years and above is the same as that for adults. [1342]

Maximum intake:

For guidance purposes only, in the general population a supplemental dose of 1 mg/day (equivalent to 0.017 mg/kg bw/day in a 60 kg adult) would not be expected to cause adverse effects. Assuming a maximum intake from food of approximately 0.49 mg/day, a total dose of 1.5 mg/day (equivalent to 0.025 mg/kg bw/day in a 60 kg adult) would not be expected to have any adverse effects. [1346]

Folic acid

The NIH study on folic acid study in preventing pregnancy complications

[1507]
Preconceptional folate supplementation for at least 1 year may halve number of premature birthsFolic acid reduces neural tube defects (spina bifida) and anencephaly. Foli acid is already being added to cereal products in U.S. and Canada starting in 1998.

Radek Bukowski and colleagues in a study concerning folate supplementation and pregnancy found that supplementation for at least 1 year before conception was associated with a 70% decrease in the incidence of spontaneous preterm delivery between 20 and 28 weeks and 50% decrease in the incidence of spontaneous preterm delivery between 28 and 32 weeks.

Radek Bukowski and colleagues recommend that women of childbearing age take a daily dose of 400 micrograms starting at least 1 year before conception. The study was presented at the 28th Annual Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine (SMFM) 2008 meeting.

Food fortification with Folic Acid

[1508]
According to a Health Food Manufacturer's Association (HFMA) Report, the average intake of folic acid per day per person in the UK is 200 $\mu$gram. But periconceptional requirement of folic acid per day is 400 $\mu$gram.

Supplementation in postconceptional period proved to be less effective in preventing NTD. Folic acid given in the periconceptional period prevents childhood leukaemia, decreases the incidence of Coronary Heart Disease and Stroke. The decrease in plasma homocysteine levels reduces the number of deaths due to stroke and Ischemic heart disease, and low levels of folate and Vitamin B12 were linked to depression.

In its paper Dhruvashree Somasundara also stresses that elderly are at risk primarily because they are commonly deficient in Vitamin B12. He calls to fortify food with both folic acid and Vitamin B12.

Mandatory folic acid fortification

[1509]
According to Mark A. Lawrence concerns about the safety implications of mandatory folic acid fortification include possible increased risk of cancer particularly colorectal cancer, decreased cognitive function, increased risk of compromised immunity and lack of evidence of protection against coronary heart disease.

Concern has also been raised regarding an increased proportion of methylenetetrahydrofolate reducatase homozygote births in women using folic acid supplements to prevent NTDs. This genotype is reliant on a high intake of folate to maintain health and is negatively associated with increased risk of several chronic diseases if diet quality is not maintained. Further it must be excluded that other phenotypic changes in offspring may take place when folic acid is supplemented in utero.

Lowering blood homocysteine with folic acid based supplements

[1510]
Robert Clarke (1998) advocated that daily supplementation with both 0.5-5 mg folic acid and about 0.5mg vitamin B-12 would be expected to reduce blood homocysteine concentrations by about a quarter to a third (for example, from about 12 $\mu$mol/l to 8-9 $\mu$mol/l).

The author called for large scale randomised trials to determine whether lowering blood homocysteine concentrations reduces the risk of vascular disease. This publication initiated a high amount of research on the effect of homocysteine blood level.

Homocysteine Concentration in Early Pregnancy

[1511]
In 2008 Linda Dodds and colleagues found that increased total homocysteine (tHcy) was associated with placental-mediated adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Increased tHcy concentrations increased risk of pregnancy loss or preeclampsia compared with subjects with lower tHcy concentrations, but it was not associated with increased risk of developing gestational hypertension or having an small for gestational age infant.

The authors concluded that high tHcy in early pregnancy is a risk factor for pregnancy loss and preeclampsia and results in abnormalities of the placental vasculature.

The Norway study

[1512]
Roi Miodini Nilsen and colleagues reported in 2007 a strong risk reduction of placental abruption when both folic acid and multivitamin were supplemented. The authors conclude that folic acid and other vitamin supplementation during pregnancy may be associated with reduced risk of placental abruption.

Voluntary food fortification policy on folate

[1513]
Leane Hoey and colleagues studied the effect of fortified foods on blood levels of biomarkers of folate, vitamin B and homocysteine. They wrote that mandatory folic acid fortification of food is effective in reducing neural tube defects and may even reduce stroke-related mortality, but it remains controversial because of concerns about potential adverse effects. Europe has therefore only a voluntary fortification.

The authors found that voluntary food fortification increased dietary intake and biomarker status of folate and metabolically related B vitamins with potential beneficial effects on health. In this research the authors stress that those who do not consume fortified foods regularly may have insufficient B vitamin status and will not participate of these benefits.

Homocysteine did not Lower Mortality and Vascular Disease in Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease

[1514]
High plasma homocysteine levels are a risk factor for mortality and vascular disease in observational studies of patients with chronic kidney disease. Folic acid and B vitamins decrease homocysteine levels in this population but whether they lower mortality is unknown.

Treatment with high doses of folic acid and B vitamins did not improve survival or reduce the incidence of vascular disease in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease.

Folates and facial clefts in newborn

[1515]

Allen J. Wilcox and colleagues found in a study published in 2007 that folic acid supplementation during early pregnancy ($>$400 $\mu$g/day) was associated with a reduced risk of isolated cleft lip with or without cleft palate.

The finds suggest that diets rich in fruits, vegetables, and other high folate containing foods reduced the risk somewhat, however, folic acid supplements and multivitamins added to a folate rich diets is the best protection. Folic acid provided no protection against cleft palate alone.

Preeclampsia

[1516]
Preeclampsia is a pregnancy induced hypertension in association with significant amounts of protein in the urine. There can be many different causes for the syndrome. While blood pressure elevation is the most visible sign of the disease, it involves generalized damage to the maternal endothelium and kidneys and liver, with the release of vasopressive factors only secondary to the original damage. Many strategies to reduce the risk of preeclampsia are being studied using vitamine or minerals as supplements:

Maternal Vitamin D Deficiency Increases the Risk of Preeclampsia

[1517]
According to Lisa M. Bodnar and colleagues 2007 maternal vitamin D deficiency may be an independent risk factor for preeclampsia. The authors suggest vitamin D supplementation in early pregnancy to prevent preeclampsia and promote neonatal well-being.


Sources of Vitamin D:

Vitamin D is formed in the skin during exposure to sunlight. It is found in fatty fish, however, diet alone without supplementation may lead to an under supply. Urbanisation, demographic shifts, decreased outdoor activity, air pollution and global dimming, and increasing age are told to be responsible for wide population groups to be deficient in vitamin D.

Call for increased supplementation with vitamin D

[1518]
Hypovitaminosis D is prevalent in youth worldwide, but the safety of vitamin D at doses exceeding 200 IU/day is unknown in this age group. We assessed the safety of high doses of vitamin D3 administered to apparently healthy school children.
Ghada El-Haff Fuleihan and colleagues 2008 in a study with adolescents, gave vitamin D3 in 200 and 2.000 IU/day for one year. No vitamin D intoxication was detected with biochemical variables monitoring.
The authors concluded that vitamin D3 at doses equivalent to 2,000 IU/day for one year is safe in adolescents and results in desirable vitamin D levels.

According to Michael Holick, vitamin D deficiency remains common in children and adults. In utero and during childhood, vitamin D deficiency can cause growth retardation and skeletal deformities and may increase the risk of hip fracture later in life.
Holick states that curret recommendations of 200 IU per day for children and adults up to 50 years of age for vitamin D need to be increased to 800 - 1000 IU vitamin D3.
About 60 per cent of northern populations may be vitamin D deficient. increasing the risk of osteopenia, osteoporosis, muscle weakness, fractures, common cancers, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases and cardiovascular diseases. [1519]

According to Vieth and colleagues 2007, human diets do not provide sufficient vitamin D, which is confirmed by low serum 25(OH)D concentrations.
Vieth concludes that correction of low 25(OH)D concentrations can happen only if some or all of the following are implemented: the encouragement of safe, moderate exposure of skin to ultraviolet light; appropriate increases in food fortification with vitamin D; and the provision of higher doses of vitamin D in supplements for adults. [1520]

Holik and Chen 2008 recommends a circulating level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D of >75 nmol/L, or 30 ng/mL, to maximize vitamin D's beneficial effects for health. In the absence of adequate sun exposure, at least 800-1000 IU vitamin D3/d may be needed to achieve this in children and adults. Vitamin D2 may be equally effective for maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D when given in physiologic concentrations. [1521]

Vitamin D supplementation may reduce systolic blood pressure

[1522]
According to Suzanne Judd and colleagues 2008, point out that recent clinical trials and animal studies have suggested that vitamin D insufficiency may be associated with elevated blood pressure. In their study, the authors found that systolic blood pressure (SBP) is inversely associated with serum vitamin D concentrations in nonhypertensive white persons in the United States. The authors call for studies on the potential effects of vitamin D supplementation as a method to reduce SBP in persons at risk of hypertension.

Multivitamins containing folic acid reduces risk of preeclampsia

[1523]
Shi Wu Wen and colleagues studied the effect of folic acid supplementation in early second trimester and reduction of risk of developing preeclampsia. The authors found that the supplementation of multivitamins containing folic acid was associated with increased serum folate (on average 10.51 $\mu$mol/L), decreased plasma homocysteine (on average 0.39 $\mu$mol/L), and reduced risk of preeclampsia. They concluded that supplementation of multivitamins containing folic acid in the second trimester is associated with reduced risk of preeclampsia. According to the authors these finding may become a new prevention strategy for pre-eclampsia.

Changes in plasma homocysteine during normal pregnancy

[1524]
Yoshihiro Sato and colleagues 2002 studied the changes in total plasma homocysteine concentration that occurred in the first, second, and third trimesters of normal pregnancy in comparision with nonpregnant controls.
The authors found that homocysteine decrease during pregnancy compared with nonpregnant controls. Homocysteine levels were decreased with folic acid supplementation. Homocysteine correlated with albumin levels, which decreased during pregnancy and with folic acid supplementation.

Calcium supplementation reduces severe preeclamptic complications

[1525]
J. Villar and colleagues in a study of the UN Development Programme found no change in preeclampsia rates in women supplemented with calcium, but did find a decrease in the rate of severe preeclamptic complications.

Herbal ingredients

Herbal ingredients have been used as food flavoring for hundreds of years. Many herbs are used in pharmacy and are regarded as natural remedies looking for new market segments functional foods rediscovered the value of these herbs when used as ingredient of food.
Consumer are increasingly looking for self-medication using drugs on herbal extract basis available in supermarkets and practicing disease prevention through diet.
Possible functional ingredients are:
Vitamins
Minerals
Essential fatty acids, such as omega 3 and omega 6 fats and oils
Amino acids
Aloe vera to nourish and hydrate the body
Echinachea to support the body's immune system

Fibre:

A new fibre is Psyllium which grows in India is told to be very effective to lower cholesterol.
Other polysaccharides with fibre activities are beta-gulcane, pectin, guar gum, inulin, chitosane,cyclodextrine.
Oligosaccharides
Green tea extract has powerful anti-oxidant properties
Tocotrienols
Alpha lipoic acid
Sugar alcohols
Gingko biloba claimed to relieve stress and aid mental alertness.

Isoflavones

Phytoestrogens

[1526] [1527]
Dietary phytoestrogens are plant-derived nonsteroidal compounds with weak estrogen-like activity. Most phytoestrogens in foods are inactive which are transformed into a steroidal structure similar to estrogens by enzymes of the gastrointestinal duct. Phytoestrogens are subdivided into 4 main classes: isoflavones, lignans, cumestrans and phytosterols, of which the isoflavones and the lignans are the 2 the most important.

Soy isoflavones supplement:

Soy foods are well balanced and are ingredients of a wide rage of products. Daniel Doerge and Daniel Sheehan oppose the decision of the FDA to approve a health claim that soya reduces the risk of heart disease.

According to Doerges and Sheehan the isoflavones of soya (genistein, daidzein and glycitein) have similar effects to the female hormone oestrogen. Soy oestrogen can lead to health problems in animals including altering sexual development of foetuses and causing thyroid disorders. Although soy is thought to protect against breast cancer, some studies show that some substances may increase the chances of breast cancer which uses oestrogen-type hormones for growth.

The claims of soy isoflavones supplement are to compensate the declining oestrogen levels and thus relieve menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes, as well as decrease the risk of heart disease and osteoporosis, without promoting breast cancer. However, exactly what effect concentrated isoflavones have remains unclear. That is why normal soy food or soy powder is beneficial but isolated soy oestrogen supplements are being looked upon with scepticism.

Isolated Isoflavones not without risk

[1347] The Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfA) stresses that soy and red clover contain isoflavones. These phytoestrogens }indexPhytoestrogenscan have a hormone-like effect. There are reports that Asian women who follow a traditional diet and regularly consume soy products scarcely suffer at all from menopausal complaints.

The Bfa, however, reminds that a distinction must be made between whether bioactive compounds are ingested naturally from food or in isolated, fortified form via food supplements. In Germany for some time now food supplements with isolated isoflavones have been available on the market as an alternative to the pre-scribed hormone replacement therapy for menopausal complaints. The products are claimed to be efficacious natural products on menopausal complaints as well as other advantageous health effects on the heart, bones and breasts without any side effects.

Adverse effects of soy/red clover-containing products do not refer to uniform sets of symptoms and point to allergic reactions and/or other causes, perhaps to the basic symptoms of the menopausal complaints of the persons concerned. The adverse effects are linked to various food supplements including ones which contain or contained other possible causal substances besides isoflavones, like nicotinic acid - a source of niacin.

The health assessment of isoflavone-containing food supplements, made by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) found that the assumed positive effects of isolated isoflavones on menopausal complaints Toxicological studies showed that high does of isoflavones, impair the functioning of the thyroid gland and can change mammary gland tissue. It cannot be ruled out that these estrogen-like effects could promote the development of breast cancer.

At the present time, the claimed favourable effects of isolated isoflavones must be deemed to be not sufficiently scientifically substantiated.

The BfR advises against the long-term intake of these products given the unproven positive effects and the serious health consequences for meno-pausal women which cannot be ruled out. BfR concludes that the safety of products containing isolated isoflavones on a soy or red clover basis has not been sufficiently proven. In addition, BfR concludes that there are health risks with low probability from food supplements of this kind for women during and after menopause.

Phytoestrogens in foods of animal origin.

[1348]
Gunter Kuhnle and colleagues 2008 assessed the phytoestrogens content of foods of animal origin. The study focused on the isoflavones biochanin A, daidzein, formononetin, genistein, and glycitein; the lignans secoisolariciresinol and matairesinol; coumestrol; equol; enterolactone; and enterodiol in 115 foods of animal origin.

The authors detected phytoestrogens in all foods analyzed; the average content was 20 microg/100 g of wet weight (isoflavones, 6 microg/100 g; lignans, 6 microg/100 g; equol, 3 microg/100 g; and enterolignans, 6 microg/100 g). In infant soy formula, 19 221 microg/100 g phytoestrogens were detected (compared to 59 microg/100 g in non-soy formula). According to the study phytoestrogens in animal products are low when compared to foods containing soy, but the range is similar to that of many commonly consumed vegetables.

The controversy of phytoestrogens:

The authors point out that, despite their potentially beneficial effects, dietary phytoestrogens may be involved in the occurrence of chronic diseases. Studies cite hormone-dependent cancers, cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, menopausal symptoms, male infertility, obesity and type-2 diabetes. the compounds were found to be biologically active even at low levels in humans with the gene variants of the estrogen receptor (ESR1 and NR1, sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG), and probably aromatase (CYP19). [1349] [1350] [1351]

New analysing technique:

Kuhnle and colleagues present a modified technique to analyse phytoestrogens in food samples and publish their content in foods of animal origin.

The authors stress that actual data limited to isoflavones and ligans in fruit, vegetables, nuts, and seeds and very little concerning animal foods, may lead to an underestimation and misclassification of dietary exposure. They emphasize, therefore the need for chromatographic analytical systems using as many labeled standards as possible and urges not to rely only on single focused analytical methods based on immunofluorescence.

They conclude that reliable information on the phytoestrogen content in animal foods is required to assess dietary exposure and disease risk in epidemiological studies.

Soy foods and reduced fertility

The soy genistein may damage human sperm

[1352] Isoflavones that exert an oestrogen-like effect like genistein, daidzein, and glycitein from soy, are dietary oestrogens that are a natural alternative to hormone replacement therapy and are supposed to slow prostate and breast cancer.

Lynn Fraser and colleagues 2005 reported that even tiny doses of these natural compounds can cause human sperm to lose fertility. Fraser says that genistein combined with other environmental oestrogens, such as 8-prenylnaringenin (found in hops),and nonylphenol that is found in industrial products like paints, pesticides and cleaning products, the damage to fertility increases.

The combination of these chemicals get effective at capacitation, the stage when a sperm acquires the ability to fertilise an egg. The chemicals cause the release of the enzymes that enable the sperm to penetrate the coverings of the egg. When the release happens before the sperm finds the egg cell, it looses the capability to penetrate the egg.

Fraser says that the premature capacitation is stimulated by both genistein and nonylphenol which trigger the production of the messenger AMP which is more likely to affect sperm when they reached the female tract where they would be preparing to fertilise eggs. Maternal exposure to the compounds is therefore probably more important than paternal exposure.

Soy products were found to reduce the concentration of sperm particularly in overweight or obese. persons.

[1353]
A study by Jorge Chavarro and colleagues 2008 found that high consumption of soy isoflavones could affect fertility.

Soy foods like tofu, tempeh, soy milk and other non-daily alternatives, energy bars, and vegetarian products using soy as a meat analogue were included in the study. Half a serving is said to be equivalent to one cup of soy milk or one portion of tofu, tempeh, or soy burgers every other day.

High intake of aan average of half a portion of soy foods per day reduced the sperm concentrations of 41m less per ml. The normal sperm concentration range is 80-120m per ml.

High sperm count and overweight:

The effect on sperm concentrations seemed to be more pronounced in men who already had higher or normal sperm counts. Overweight people presented a more pronounced effect, because higher body fat produces more oestrogen than slimmer men.

Chavarro and colleagues concluded that men should avoid eating too much soy if they are planning a family.

The authors stress, however that Asian populations consuming high amounts of soy foods presented no reduced fertility or other health problems.

Genetic susceptibility to estrogen from soy products

[1354]
Although the importance of estrogens in male reproduction is indisputable, little attention has been paid to the role of estrogen receptor (ER) gene mutations in male infertility. The authors found an association between higher TA repeat number (genotype A) and lower sperm production. In line with this observation, normospermic subjects with genotype A had a significantly lower mean sperm concentration with respect to men bearing genotype B with shorter TA alleles and a lower total sperm count.

The authors concluded that specific allelic combinations of the ERalpha, which confer a stronger estrogen effect, may negatively influence human spermatogenesis.


No cardiovascular benefit from soy isoflavones

[1355]
Garrido and colleagues followed the suggestion that isoflavones protect the cardiovascular system, in part by improving lipid profile. They examined the effect of 12-weeks soy isoflavone supplementation on lipoprotein status and platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density.

Blood pressure, body mass index, subcutaneous fat, insulin, serum lipoprotein, sex hormones and sex hormone-binding globulin did not differ among experimental group and placebo group. However, platelet thromboxane A2 receptor density declined significantly in the experimental group, remaining mostly unchanged in the placebo group. The change in platelet thromboxane A2 receptors correlated negatively with isoflavones serum concentration.

The authors concluded that there were no cardiovascular benefit from soy isoflavones. The beneficial effects of isoflavones in menopausal women could be more related to platelet function than to improving classical cardiovascular risk factors.

Phytoestrogens protect against lung cancer

[1356]
Margaret R. Spitz and colleagues assessed the role of phytoestrogens and reduction of risk of lung cancer. They found that total phytosterols, isoflavones, lignans, and phytoestrogens were each associated with reductions in risk of lung cancer ranging from 21% for phytosterols; to 46% for total phytoestrogens from food sources onlyfor men abut only total phytoestrogens from food sources were effective against lung cancer in women. There were also significant joint effects found between hormone therapy use and phytoestrogen intake, such as the lignans enterolactone and enterodiol in women.

The authors concluded that their data provide further support for the limited but growing epidemiologic evidence that phytoestrogens are associated with a decrease in risk of lung cancer, however, more studies on this subject are needed.

Other bioactive food ingredients are:

Phosphatidylserine and Garlic.

Aloe vera

Aloe vera (Linné) was taxonomically renamed by Miller in 1768 as Aloe barbadensis (Miller). Both names relate to the same plant. There are about 300 species of Aloe, but only Aloe vera and Aloe arborescens bear compounds with health related effects. The most important of these is the mucopolysaccharid acemannan. [1529]
Aloe latex and aloe gel can be derived from Aloe vera.

Aloe latex (or aloe juice):

It is the bitter yellow exudate from the outer skin of the leaves. Its active compounds are the anthraquinone glycosides aloin A and B. Aloe latex is laxative.

Aloe gel

: It is often sold as powder. It is the colourless gel contained in the inner part of the fresh leaves. Important polysaccharides are pectins, cellulose, hemicellulose, glucomannan, acemannan and mannose derivatives. The most important of these compound is acemannan. Aloe gel is often commercialised as powdered concentrate.

Effects in burn wound healing

[1530]
Maenthaisong and colleagues 2007 say that aloe vera might be an effective interventions used in burn wound healing for first to second degree burns, and call for more studies.

Cautions against specific effects

[1531]
Aterton in 1998 calls for caution against complementary treatments like chronic venous leg ulcers with oral or topical application of Aloe vera that may aid healing.

Aloe vera gel:

It is a preparation of leaf pulp from the parenchymal tissue of the plant Aloe vera (Liliaceae). Aloe vera gel contains carbohydrate polymers, such as glucomannans or pectic acid, and various vitamins and essential amino acids, as well as other organic and inorganic compounds. This agent has been used internally or externally for sunburn, skin problems, insect bites, ulcers, arthritis, constipation, and as an immune system enhancer.

Antitumor activity

[1532]
Aloe-emodin: It is a compound of the family of anthraquinones, with anti-inflamatory andf anticancer effects.

Aloe-emodin (1,8-dihydroy-3-[hydroxymethyl]-anthraquione) purified from Aloe vera leaves has been reported to have antitumor activity. The authors found that aloe-emodin delayed the number of cells entering and exiting DNA synthesis (S) phase in cells indicating that aloe-emodin may inhibit S phase progression. The cancer growth inhibition by aloe-emodin was due to apoptosis. The authors suggest that aloe-emodin represents a novel antitumor chemotherapeutic drug. [1533]

Maxey C. M. Chung and colleagues 2007 found that Aloe-emodin induced anticancer effects in HepG2 cells via multiple pathways by affecting different protein targets and was able to decrease cell migration via up-regulation of the metastasis inhibitor, nm23. [1534]

Giorgio Palu and colleagues report that Here we show that aloe-emodin selectively inhibits human neuroectodermal tumor cell growth in tissue cultures and in animal models. Neuroblastoma, pPNET, and Ewing's sarcoma cells were found highly susceptible to aloe-emotin, The authors write, however, that human malignant cells from epithelial and blood-derived tumors, as well as human hemopoietic progenitors and normal fibroblasts, were not sensitive to this compound. [1535]

Toxicology

[1536]
Boudreau and Beland 2006 report that ingestion of Aloe vera is associated with diarrhea, electrolyte imbalance, kidney dysfunction, and conventional drug interactions; and contact dermatitis, erythema, and phototoxicity with topical applications. The authors reviewed the botany, physical and chemical properties, and biological activities of the Aloe vera plant. The toxic effects are related to aloin.

Alantoin in aloe latex, exudate from outer skin of aloe:

It is used in beverages because of its taste and laxative effects.
The EU directive 88/388 sets maximum limits of 0,1 mg/kg in foods and beverages, and 50 mg/kg in alcoholic beverages. Incomplete separation of the leaf skin may cause aloin or other hydroxyanthracene derivatives to be present in Aloe vera gel. [1537]

Aloe vera and diabetes

[1538]
According to Vogler and Ernst 1999 the clinical effectiveness of oral or topical aloe vera as adjunct for lowering blood glucose in diabetic patients as well as for reducing blood lipid levels in patients with hyperlipidaemia is not sufficiently defined at present. Aloe vera leaf pulp extract devoid of the gel has hypoglycaemic effect non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus.

Okyar and colleagues 2001 report that Aloe vera leaf pulp extract showed hypoglycaemic activity on type 1 diabetic and type 2 diabetic rats. However, Aloe vera leaf gel extract showed hyperglycaemic activity on type 2 diabetic rats. The authors concluded that the pulps of Aloe vera leaves devoid of the gel could be useful in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. [1539]

Tanaka and colleagues 2006 evaluated the anti-hyperglycemic effect of Aloe vera gel in mice. The authors isolated a five active compounds from lophenol, cycloartanol and their derivates. There were no differences between the five phytosterols, which reduced fasting blood glucose levels up to 64% compared with the control group. They concluded that Aloe vera gel and phytosterols derived from Aloe vera gel could be useful for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. [1540]

Beppu and colleagues 2006 performed experimental trials to determine antidiabetic effects of Aloe vera. The authors found that The dietary administration of 10 KDa fraction powder to mice exerted an antioxidant activity in the pancreas and blood, which could protect islets of Langerhans from destruction. They also stress that the 10 KDa fraction powder alleviates the burden of insulin secretion as it has an inhibitory action on glucose absorption in the jejunum of rats. [1541]

Perez and colleagues 2007 report that Aloe vera gel could be effective for the control of insulin resistance, which precedes type 2 diabetes mellitus. [1542]

Analysis of components of Aloe vera

[1543]
According to A.Bozi and coleagues 2007 glucose, malic acid, and the polysaccharide acemannan, are the three main natural components of aloe vera gel. Maltodextrin remains a common adulterant of aloe vera gel powders.

Organic acid analysis to assess freshness of Aloe vera products:

The authors found that lactic acid is a negative quality characteristic of aloe raw materials, indicating improper processing or incorrect storage. Fumaric acid, succinic acid, and pyruvates may be produced by enzymes. During fermentation and enzymatic degradation acemannan is degraded to acetic acid. Malic acid is the only organic acid contained in fresh aloe vera gel. Commercial aloe gel powders have citric and added for preservation and flavour.

Sugars:

Acemanan in aloe vera gel powders should be the major polysaccharide. Bozi and colleagues measured the amount of mannose after acid hydrolysis gave a direct and rapid measurement acemannan in the gel powder.

Ginseng extract:

A new ginseng extract called Cold-fx was developed by a spin-off company of the University of Alberta, CV Technologies. I contains 80 per cent poly-furanosyl-pyranosyl-saccharides and 10 percent protein from the ginseng roots.

The North American ginseng (Panax quiquefolium) is used as raw material. A publication of the Canadian Medical Association Journal (173, issue 9) claims that the extract is a safe,effective prophylactic treatment for upper respiratory tract infections.

It may boost production of natural killer cell activity, thought to decrease susceptibility to frequent colds. Further studies on its efficacy and safety to children and immunocompromised populations were recommended.

The composition of the Asian or Korean ginseng (Panax Ginseng C.A. Meyer) should also be analysed to find new ways to boost the human immune system to counter pandemics of influenza like an avian influenza outbreak.

Ronald Turner from the University of Virginia School of Medicine in the same journal warned of the many pitfalls faced by clinical studies of natural remedies for viral infections. Since the proposed mechanism of action of ginseng on colds is unclear, and the active compounds have not been identified, even though the extract was standardized " it is possible that there is lot-to-lot variability for important phytochemical components that are not measured". Peptides
Lactic acid bacteria
Isoprenoids
Lecithin
St. John's wort whose claim is emotional balance.
Dietary fibre as they prevent constipation.
Polyunsaturated fats to help to lower cholesterol
Carnitine[1544]
Carnitine was discovered in 1905 and is also called vitamin B$_{T}$. It is trimethylbetaine (beta-OH-gama-trimethylamino butyric acid). Long chain fatty acids are bind to carnitine which makes them able to cross the membrane of the mitochondrions and are there exposed to a beta-oxidation, it has a transmethylation and tyrosine effect. Carnitine has also a role in the oxidation but not in the transport of medium-chain fatty acids.[1545]
Carnitine triggers the appetite and increases and bodyweight, the reason why it is being added to animal feed.


Biosynthesis of carnitine:

The biosynthesis of carnitine which starts from lysine and methionine needs additional L-ascorbic acid and takes place in the liver. In case of an undersupply of vitamine C there will be very soon a drop of carnitine in the muscles resulting in weariness and weakness.[1506]

Vitamine C is a cofactor of two dioxygenases reaction of the carnitine synthesis which needs also alpha-chetoglutarate. Guinea pigs with scurvy have low concentrations of carnitine in their blood. A low level of vitamine C reduces the availability of energy and the lipid metabolism due to a drop of carnitine.


Food as source of carnitine:

Parallel to biosynthesis of carnitine in the liver food acts as an additional source. Vegetarians have a daily intake of 2 mg carnitine and mixed food bring 32 mg daily intake.


Food Canitine
  mg in 100g
mutton 210
beef 70
pork 30
tomato 2.9
pear 2.7
pea 1.2
potato 0
carrot 0


Fifteen days of parenteral feeding leads to a drop of carnitine which cannot be compensated by biosynthesis. A carnitine substitution of 10 mg/day normalizes the concentration of carnitine in the serum and the beta-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. Hemodialysis drops carnitine about 50%. Feeding carnitine reduces the amount of free fatty acids in the serum as it is forwarded to the beta-oxidation.

Hepatocirrhosis low carnitine is due to a diminished biosynthesis and reduced intake of food.


Carnitine and sport:

Carnitine is being used as supplement in the nutrition of athletes to increase performance. A positive effect has not been confirmed.[1546] It is considered as a non drug-doping substance but it is not on the "red list".
Folate
Psyllium to help to reduce cholesterol levels
Magnesium

Functional foods should taste good, be well prepared, and offer real benefits such as gastrointestinal function, antioxidant activity, micronutrients, positive activity on fetal and early life development.
On global market the functional foods will be sold under "Hard claims" [681] which are claims related to activities against diseases. " Soft claims " are used to describe preventive health claims.


Nutraceuticals:

are foods which can provide protection and/or treatment of diseases.


Fast food, Snacks and Finger Food:

are foods served in canteens, Bakery shops and snack bars having a great segment with classic sandwiches as a small meal and the "mediterranean range" like baguettes, croissants, pita bread and ciabatta.

Convenience Foods

[681]
Searching for new market segments Convenience Foods was increasingly considered to have great future. Convenient shops should sell small packages, ready to eat snacks.

They should include a coffee serve, have a post counter, a copy machine and very important for Germany: a counter for Toto-Lotto bets. All trials to install such a chain of such stores in Germany have failed mainly because of regulations concerning store opening time.

Convenience Foods however is being sold as frozen food ready to serve, frozen vegetables already seasoned, different frozen fish dishes.
A growing importance have convenience foods for restaurants and fast food restaurants as well as food industry which uses processed raw ware.
The trend of Convenience Foods lies not in new stores but to place these products together with standard packagings where the consumer can choose between different price and quality of products.

Food supplements

Food supplements are defined in a leaflet of the German Institute for consumer Health and Veterinary Medicine (Bundesinstitut für Gesundheitlichen Verbraucherschutz und Veterinärmedizin (BgVV)
Food supplements are foods having one or more nutritional substances in concentrated form (mainly vitamins, minerals and trace elements), presenting a for food unusual form (pills or capsules etc.) Food supplements should be labeled as "Food supplement" together with the suggested daily intake.Food supplements are ruled by Food laws, in Germany by the LMBG ( Lebensmittel- und Bedarfsgegenständegesetz. they do not need a special release. Exception are dietary supplements , they do need a registration and a release.


Definition of Dietary Supplements according FDA

http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/list.html.
Dietary supplement is any product taken by mouth, that contains a so called dietary ingredientänd its label states that it is a dietary supplement. Dietary supplements may be presented in form of pills, tablets, capsules, liquids or powders.


Definition of Dietary Ingredients

Dietary ingredients are present in dietary supplements. They may include vitamins,minerals, herbs, and aminoacids as well as substances such as enzymes, organ tissues, metabolites extracts or concentrates. The producer of food supplements is responsible for health safety of his products. He has to avoid deceiving informations and disease related statements ( 17 and 18 LMBG).
Substances with pharmacological activities are not food supplements. They are ruled under pharmacy laws.

The BgVV says that well-balanced adequate nutrition is sufficient to feed the daily nutrients.An increase of wellness through food supplements is according to BgVV doubtful. An exception is iodine and folic acid.For these two elements there is an undersupply in Germany. It is therefore advisable to use iodine salt in kitchen, community provisioning, production of bread, backery products and meat derivates.


Folic acid

Is important in the prevention of neural tube defects in the early pregnancy and reduces plasma homocystein which can lead to atherosclerotic damage.


Cancer, the medicine flop, a statement of Dr. Lothar Weissbach,president of the German Cancer Society

Dr. med. Lothar Weissbach is president of the German Cancer Society. He is an authority in research and treatment of human cancer. He works in the "Krankenhaus am Urban" Berlin.

In an interview with Hans Halter published in"Der Spiegel"[1029] made the following statement:

"Early identification of cancer is very expensive, but not very effective.The interactive work between different specialists doctors is unsufficient and reduces the chances of the patients. The genetherapy will come but it will be necessary that more patients are willing to participate in clinical studies.Experts await the begin of the genetherapy for 2.003 or 2005.
One hundred years ago there were 43.000 death per year in Germany, on end of 1999 there were 218.000 death of the same cause. This come from a growing age of the population. Cancer is a disease of high age (this is not correct in related to breast and lung cancer, see WHO statistics:-comment of OurFood.com-). Pancreas cancer und lung cancer cannot be treated. Prognosis is bad. It is true that in ten years cancer will be at place number one in the death causes in Germany. We are not prepared for this.
Main concern are death cases from lung cancer, bowel cancer and breast cancer which has increased about 20% after introduction of early detection checks.

We have to learn that we can cure only a small part of cancer diseases. The knowledge gets through that we have to detect cancer earlier and -better as that- we have to avoid cancer."
Better understanding of food physiology, better care of our environment and self discipline regarding smoking and alcohol consume can be a precious contribution to reduce risk of cancer.


Breast cancer and high fat diet

High fat diet may increase breast cancer risc according to the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The fat is not causal agent but instead causes depletion of an undiscovered essential agent that is normaly protective against breast cancer
Omportant factors engaged in the origine of breast cancer are:
1.- Deficiency, inadequate intake or depletion via a high fat diet.
2 - Age
3.-Estrogen.

Supplemented Foods


Isoflavonoids:

: Isoflavonoids are phytochemicals which are free radical scavangers and can be extracted from soy beans.
Supplementing foods with isoflavonoids can help to reinforce the positive action of nature.

Flavonoids, such as isoflavones, anthocyanidins and flavonols

Phytoestrogens are substances which are estrogen-like. They are sometimes called endocrine disrupters. Some hypothesis say that exogenous substances with estrogenic or otherhormonally active properties may adversely affect human health.[1242]

Endocrine disruptors can be industrial contaminants, such as pesticides and plasticizers, and others are natural phytoestrogens found in plants such as soy and in herbal supplements.

They may cause male wild-life animals in water contaminated by detergent, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and herbicide to express female characteristics and other modifications. Human development can also be feminized by exposure to estrogenic chemicals, affect breast growth and lactation, and could have a role in uterine diseases such as fibroids and endometriosis.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals mostly exhibit estrogenic effects, but a few are anti-estrogenic or anti-androgenic,resulting in reduced fertility in breeding cattle. [1243]
They are found in plants. Important phytoestrogens are ligans, isoflavones and coumetans.

Effect of phytoestrogens such as lignans on cancer risk

Lignans: They are found in flax seed (300 mg/100g), sesame seed (290 mg/100g), brassica vegetables (0,2-2 mg/100 g), red wine (0,09 mg/100 g).

Several hundred individual lignans have been discovered. Research, however, is focussed on lignans from flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) and only few studies were made on lignans from Norwegian spruce bark (Picea abies).

When part of the human diet, some lignans are metabolised to form mammalian lignans known as enterediol and enterolactone by intestinal bacteria. Lignans that can be metabolised to form mammalian lignans are pinoresinol, lariciresinol, secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, hydroxymatairesinol, syringaresinol and sesamin. [1244]

Phytoestrogens may play a role in hormone-related diseases such as cancer, but epidemiological and clinical data are conflicting.

The mammalian lignans enterolactone and enterodiol are produced by the microflora in the colon of humans and animals from precursors in foods such as lignans. They have been suggested to have potential anticancer effects.

Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues in 2005 determined the production of mammalian lignans from precursors in food bars containing unground whole flaxseed and sesame seed. The authors demonstrated that precursors from unground whole flaxseed and sesame seed are converted by the bacterial flora in the colon to mammalian lignans. [1245]

Sesame seed is not protective and negatively interferes with tamoxifen in inducing regression of established MCF-7 tumor size

[1246]
Flaxseed enhances the tumor growth-inhibitory effect of tamoxifen, but sesame seed was found by Sandra M.Sacco and colleagues to have no effect on tumor and tend to negate the tumor-inhibitory effect of tamoxifen, reducing apoptosis. The authors concluded in a 2008 study that sesame seed is not protective and negatively interferes with tamoxifen in inducing regression of established MCF-7 tumor size.

The Waagening lignan study January 2008: Enteroligans do not protect against colorectal cancer.

[1247]
Peter C.H. Hollaman and colleagues say that high plasma enterodiol or enterolactone concentrations do not reduce risk of colorectal cancer. Enterolignans are biphenolic compounds that possess several biologic activities whereby they may influence carcinogenesis.

Enterodiol and enterolactone are a product of the activity of the microflora of the colon metabolising lignans from plants such as flax seed, whole grain cereals, berries, vegetables and fruits. The authors stressed that plasma enterodiol and colorectal increased the risk of colorectal cancer among current smokers.
The results contradict the study published in 2006.


The Waagening lignan study June 2006: Enteroligans protect against colorectal cancer.

[1248]
Peter C.H. Hollaman and colleagues reported in June 2006 a substantial reduction in colorectal adenoma risk among subjects with high plasma concentrations of enterolignans, in particular, enterodiol. The authors write that findings could be important in the prevention of colorectal adenomas.

Enterolactone reduces the proliferation of prostate cancer cells in vitro

[1249]
According to Marc J. McCann and colleagues 2008 ecological data suggest that a long-term diet high in plant material rich in biologically active compounds, such as the lignans, can significantly influence the development of prostate cancer. The authors performed an in vitro study which suggests that the antiproliferative activity of enterolactone of the LNCaP human prostate cancer cell line in vitro is a consequence of altered expression of cell cycle associated genes. According to the authors this study provides evidence for the antiproliferative properties of a pure lignan in prostate cancer.

Dietary flaxseed reduces tumor growth in patients with breast cancer.

[1250]
Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues found in 2005 that dietary flaxseed, the richest source of mammalian lignan precursors, increased the apoptosis of cancer cells, increased urinary lignan excretion and reduced tumor biological markers in postmenopausal patients with newly diagnosed breast cancer.

The authors concluded that dietary flaxseed has the potential to reduce tumor growth in patients with breast cancer.

Flaxseed, soy protein isolates and their action on breast cancer cells

[1251]
Previous study of Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues had found that flaxseed (FS) reduced while soy protein isolate (SPI) stimulated MCF-7 breast tumor growth in ovariectomized mice. In 2007 the authors found that combining SPI and FS resulted in a negation of SPI-induced tumor growth. Uterus weight was significantly increased by the SPI + FS group, while SPI alone induced an intermediate effect.

The authors concluded that although the SPI + FS and SPI groups exerted stimulatory effects on uterus weight, other histological parameters need to be measured to determine the overall safety of these breast cancer treatments on the uterus.

Flaxseed and soy protein isolates and their effect on breast cancer

[1252]
In several epidemiological studies, a phytoestrogen-rich diet containing lignans and isoflavones is associated with reduced breast cancer risk, but experimental findings are controversial.

In 2006 Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues found that in mouse, ligans of flaxseed reduced breast cancer growth, while isoflavones from soy protein enhanced it. The combination of soy protein with flaxseed reduced the tumor growth.

The authors concluded that dietary flaxseed did not stimulate the growth of estrogen responsive MCF-7 cancers in mice, while long-term consumption of soy protein did, and flaxseed reduced the tumor growth stimulating effect of soy protein. Flaxseed is therefore being suggested to attenuate tumor growth.

The combination of flaxseed with soy reduce the growth stimulatory effect on established breast cancer

[1253]
Concern over the safety of soy and its isoflavones are growing. Soy genistein was found to increase the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. According to Lilian U. Thompson and colleagues in july 2007 wrote that flaxseed with enterodiol and enterolactone, was found to negate the tumor stimulatory effects of soy protein or genistein alone.

The authors , analysing the findings of their study, concluded that soy should be consumed together with lignan-rich foods to avoid an increased risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Isoflavones:Isoflavones are polyphenolic compounds produced almost exclusively by the members of the Fabaceae/ Leguminosae (bean) family. Important isoflavones are genistein, daidzein, glycitein and formononetin. Soy products contain the highest amounts of isoflavone, followed by legumes, meat products and other processed foods, cereals and breads, nuts and oilseeds, vegetables, alcoholic beverages, fruits, and non alcoholic beverages. [1254]

Coumetans: A known coumestan is the coumestrol. Coumestans are estrogen-like substances (phytoestrogens) made by some plants. Coumestans may have anticancer effects according to the U.S. National Cancer Institute.

A new coumestan, tephcalostan has been isolated from the whole plant of Tephrosia calophylla BEDD. together with two known flavonoids. [1255]

Flavonoids, lignans and reduction of risk of breath cancer

[1256]
Bryan Fink and colleagues investigated the association of dietary flavonoid intake with reduced risk of breast cancer in a population-based sample of US women. The authors found a decrease in breast cancer risk associated with flavonoid intake, most pronounced for flavonols, flavones, flavan-3-ols, and lignans in postmenopausal women.

The authors conclude that women consuming sufficient levels of flavonoids may benefit from their potential chemopreventive effects. Flavonoids antioxidants may thus reduce mortality among postmenopausal in breast cancer patients [1257]

Brian Fink from the University of North Carolina states, write in another publication, that his team found that the breath-cancer mortality in postmenopausal women may be reduced in association with high levels of dietary flavones and isoflavones. No reduction of risk was found in premenopausal women.

Flavonoids and flavanones reduce oral and paryngeal cancer

[1258]
Rossi and colleagues 2007 in a study found that the intake of flavonoids was inversely related to the risk of various common neoplasms, but scanty data exist on oral and pharyngeal cancer. The authors applied data on food and beverage content of six major classes of flavonoids, for flavanones, for flavonols, and for total flavonoids. In this study no significant association emerged for isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, and flavones. The inverse relations with total flavonoids and flavanones was significant, whereas that with flavonols were nonsignificant.


Health benefits of flavonoids from citrus fruits

Enzymatic modification of the citrus flavonoid hesperidin improves bioavailability in humans

[1259]

Hesperidin is the predominant polyphenol from citrus fruits and juices, but it has reduced bioavailability due to the rutinoside moiety attached to the flavonoid.

In a study by Nielsen and colleagues 2006 the rhamnose group was removed to yield the corresponding flavonoid glucoside improving the bioavailability of the aglycone hesperetin.

The authors concluded that the bioavailability of hesperidin was modulated by enzymatic conversion to hesperetin-7-glucoside, thus changing the absorption site from the colon to the small intestine.


Hesperidin and naringin from orange and grape fruits can lead to reductions in cholesterol levels in lab animals

[1260]
Shela Gorinstein and colleagues 2007 compared the influence of hesperidin and naringin, the main flavonones of plasma antioxidant activity increasing flavonones.


Flavanones from citrus fruits may help to treat neurovegetative diseases

[1261]
According to Sam-Long Hwang and Gow-Chin Yen 2007 the citrus flavanones hesperidin, hesperetin, and neohesperidin from cirus fruits, have neuroprotective effects against H$_{2}$O$_{2}$-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells. The flavanones protect against oxidative stress , playing thus a neuroprotective role. Citrusfruits fruits have potential as functional foods for neuroprotectione.

The authors suggest the use of these flavanones in the intervention for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease,

Soy as supplement in infant formulas

Soy as a supplement or replacement for maternal breast milk or cow's milk in infant formulas is becoming increasingly important. Antioxidant effects of isoflavones from soy, such as genistein, daidzein, and glycitein had been seen as some of good merits of soy.

However, according to ongoing discussions phytoestrogens in soy infant formulas may have an adversely affect human growth, development, or reproduction.

Genistein beside its antioxidant effect is also a phytoestrogen which may be hazardous to human development or reproduction. Concerns about oestrogen effects of genistein in human body are being discussed. [1262]

A summary of the bibliography related to soy and Genistein in the management of menopause-related symptoms is given by Nelson HD. [1263].

The outcomes of a discussion, leaded by US Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR) of the National Institute of Environmental Health Services (NIEHS) and National Toxicology Program in March 2006, were:

When given orally, there was no threat from the reproductive and developmental effects of soy, supporting the safety of soy isoflavone dietary supplements. The effects of genistein in relation to heart disease or cancer risk, were not explored by the panelists.

One member of the pannel, however called for greater caution on this matter.

Soy Isoflavones are known for acting similarly to natural estrogens as well as performing protective functions within our bodies. When estrogen levels are low, Isoflavones and other phyto-estrogens bring the body to state of equilibrium. This balanced state reduces the effect of estrogen on our bodies' cells and therefore reduces the risk of estrogen linked cancers.

Functions of Genistein
Genistein as antioxidant reduces the risk for arteriosclerosis minimizing peroxidation and prevets thus LDL cholesterol being absorbed by aarterial walls.

Genistein blocks the enzime tyrosinereducing the risk of cancer. Breat and prostata cancer are also being said to be reduced by genistein.

Functions of daidzein
Daidzein has little estrogen activity but is very effective as antioxidant. It was linked to reduction of risk of mammary tumors and reduction of risk of osteoporosis.

Functions of glycitein
Glycitein has the greatest estrogenic activity levels of all the Isoflavones when measured in vivo. It is the most easily absorbed Isoflavone.

Special purpose value added soybeans

[1264] Scientists are searching the loci controlling the accumulation of specific soybean isoflavones.

Reducing unwanted isoflavones while enhancing beneficial isoflavones could be a key-breeding target. Manipulation of isoflavone contents and profiles will result in the creation of special purpose value added soybeans.

Future research needs to focus on the production of a cultivar that consistently produces 5-6 mg/g of total isoflavone, with a white hilum and non-GMO herbicide resistance for the international soy protein isolate market.

Beneficial health claims for soy [1265] Phytoestrogen supplements have become popular as alternatives for hormone replacement therapy based on their potential as prevention of hormonedependent diseases. Isoflavonoids found in legumes, such as soybeans, are converted by intestinal bacteria to metabolites with increased or decreased estrogenic activity.

Microbial biotransformation plays a central role in regulating the biological activity of isoflavonoid phytoestrogens. They can convert them to potent estrogens or break them to nonestrogenic metabolites.

Microbial activities are also involved in prolonging enterohepatic circulation of isoflavonoids by decongugation of the liver isoflavonoid metabolites.

These activities result in delay in excretion, consequently prolonging the period of exposure of target tissues, such as reproductive organs. Detection of the specific bacteria from the human intestinal tract that are involved in the metabolism of phytoestrogens has been the subject of this study.

Specific bacteria involved in biotransformation of three natural isoflavonoids, biochanin A, formononetin and glycitein, to their primary more estrogenic metabolites (genistein, daidzein, and 6,7,4'-trihydroxyisoflavone) by demethylation, which also enhances their absorption, have been found.
One of the reasons for the lack of beneficial effect of phytoestrogens has been their conversion by bacteria to nonestrogenic metabolites.

FDA has granted the petition for a claim that the use of soy protein is safe, however, it still does not have a ruling on isoflavonoids for consumers. In addition to advancing the study of phytoestrogen metabolism, the data obtained provide background information that FDA can use when evaluating data on the beneficial or detrimental effects of phytoestrogens for regulatory purposes.


Catechin in chocolate

Catechin


Pine bark

Pine bark of Finland is according to the producer of Vitabak rich on bioflavonids. The content of bioflavonids of the bark rises as one gets in north direction.

Composition of 1 g bark:
Flavonoids 33,4 mg
Calcium 680 mg
Iron 270 mg
Magnesium 250 mg
Zinc 89 mg
and 61% of fibres.

The University of Kuopio has started a research about LDL-Cholesterol reducing properties of Vitabark.
14 g of bark powder were given daily in form of bread to a special group. After one week blood cholesterol lowered about 17%.
Many bioflavonoids have a very bitter taste and are therefore generaly taken as supplements in time-release tablets or in capsules that will not dissolve radily in mouth.
Bioflavonoids are water-soluble substances associated with materials that often appear in fruits and vegetables as companions to vitamin C.According to Dr. Z. Zloch of Charles University in Czechoslovakia the antioxidant activity of bioflavonoids seems to result from their unique chemical structure; they act as reducing agents which are transported to the site where vitamin C is to be stored in the cell.
There is an increased uptake of vitamin C into the liver, kidney and adrenal gland when bioflavonoids were administrated with vitamin C. There is also an increased protection of the vitamin C against oxidation because the bioflavonoids convert the ascorbic acid to a less active form as dehydroascorbate.
Decrease in blood cholesterol in animals treated with vitamin C together with bioflavonoids was also noted by Dr. Zloch. The decrease was not so high when vitamin C was used without bioflavonoids[1266].

Maritime pine

The Maritime Pine, Pinus pinaster, is a pine native to the western Mediterranean region. Often the old generic name Pinus maritima is used for the French maritime pine. Both names refer to the same tree. The bark is a source of proanthocyanidins, also known as procyanidin oligomeric proanthocyanidin (OPC), pycnogenol, leukocyanidin and leucoanthocyanin, they are flavanols.

Small changes in nutritional patters may increase ischemic heart disease risk [1267]
Il Suh and colleages found in a study published in 2001 that in China dietary fat intake increased from 15.9% of energy in 1982 to 21.1% in 1990; ischemic heart disease incidence and mortality also increased.
Mortality from ischemic heart disease among Koreans has increased 5- to 6-fold during the past decade. the average fat intake of Koreans increased during the same period: from 14% of energy in 1986 to 19% of energy in 1997. This increased dietary intake may affect the incidence of ischemic heart disease.
The authors of the study conclude that in a population with a relatively low fat intake, a moderate increase in total fat intake may be a risk factor for ischemic heart disease.


Enzymes

Enzymes are active substances which are produced by living organismn which may act on chemical reactions in living cells or outside. Enzymes are proteines with low molecular active group with strong binding called prostetic group or with weak binding and easy to split off group called coenzyme
Examples of enzymes are lipases (enzymes which split fats), proteases (enzymes which split proteines)
Enzymes are used in industrial technology and in colorimetrical methodes for the determination of specific substances in foodstuffs.

Vitamins

Vitamins, such as beta-carotene acting as an antioxidant and indirect source of vitamin A give can supplement foods turning color yellow to red (Lucarotin 10 CWD G/R from BASF, red provitamin A).
Supplemented antioxidant drinks are also labeled as A-C-E drinks.

Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in children and is a risk of severe infections disease, heart disease, skin cancer, prostate cancer, and arthritis. Plant foods may contain provitamin A pigments such as alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin that ore converted to vitamin A by the body.

Globally, it is estimated that 140-250 million children under five years of age are affected by vitamin A deficiency. These children suffer a dramatically increased risk of death, blindness and illness, especially from measles and diarrhoea. The WHO calls for a combination of breast feeding, dietary improvement, food fortification, and supplementation. [1120]

Vitamin A reduction of inflammation [1118]
Kurt Long from Harvard School of Public Health aand colleagues studied the effect of vitamin A (retinol) supplements on levels of the molecule, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), which is associated with a state of increased inflammation and is also involved in the pathogen-specific mucosal immune response.

Children who received the vitamin A supplement were found to have reduced fecal concentrations of MCP-1 compared with children in the placebo group.

The supplementation also reduced MCP-1 levels in children with infections, like the bacteria Escherichia coli or the human roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides.

The authors conclude that vitamin A has an anti-inflammatory effect in the gastrointestinal tract by reducing MCP-1 concentrations.

Retinol [1119] [1121] [1121] Retinol is the dietary form of vitamin A. It is fat soluble and is found mainly in fish liver oils, liver, egg yolks, butter, and cream. Retinol is ingested in a precursor form; animal sources are milk and eggs in form of retinyl esters.

Green leafy and yellow vegetables such as spinach and carrots contain beta-carotene and other provitamin carotenoids, which are converted to retinal in the mucosal cells of the small intestine. Retinal is reduced to retinol, then esterified as retinyl palmitat. Most of the body's vitamin A is stored in the liver as retinyl palmitate. It is released into the circulation as retinol Hydrolysis of retinyl esters results in retinol while pro-vitamin A carotenoids can be cleaved to produce retinal which can be reduced to retinol.

Biologic equivalents
Biologic equivalents, for diets with different proportions of retinol and beta-carotene, are as follows: 1 USP U equals 1 IU; 1 IU equals 0.3 microg of retinol; 1 microg of beta-carotene equals 0.167 microg of retinol.

Other provitamin carotenoids are half as active as beta-carotene, because they have only one un-substituted font beta end group.

Beta-cryptoxanthin: Beta-cryptoxanthin can be found in many vegetables and fruits, mainly in papaya, mango, peaches, oranges, tangerines, bell peppers, corn and watermelon. Beta-cryptoxanthin is also found in some yellow coloured animal products such as egg yolk and butter, and is told to be the main source of provitamin A.

Production of beta-cryptoxanthin [1121]
According O. Serrato-Joya from the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at the Technological Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, beta-cryptoxanthin has been neglected because most of the information were focused on b-carotene alone. This was due to the lack of suitable analytical techniques, and alternative viable processes for production.

O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues describe a process producing beta cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.

O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues from the Technology Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, describe a process producing beta-cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids

The eicosapentaen acid and docosahexaen acid are essential fatty acids.They are available only in form of fatty fish like mackerel, herring , salmon . An undersupply of omega-3 PUFA is therefore possible and the search for this essential fatty acids in plants and microorganism is being started. Microencapsulated omega-3 fatty acids are used in healthy diets and in prevention of cardiovascular diseases, supplement bakery products,pasta, breakfast cereals, ready-made meals, soups,dairy products and baby food.
Microencapsulated omega-3 high unsaturated fatty acids have neutral taste, without smell and are protected from oxidation.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids help to prevent cardiovascular diseases, hypertonia, Diabetes mellitus. They also act against inflammation and allergic diseases like psoriasis.
Omega-3 PUFA are important for neurophysiological functions and brain and vision development of newborn.The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of depressions is being studied.


Classification of omega-3 fatty acids

The classification of omega-3 PUFA regards:
1.- The number of C-atoms of the molecule,
2.- The number of unsaturated links,
3.- The position of the first double link in relation to the methyl end of the fatty acid.
The structure of omega-6 PUFA is given below as they are often seen in relation with omega-3 PUFA:
\includegraphics[width=300bp, height=200bp, angle=0]{library/Omega6.eps}
Most important omega-6 PUFA are: linoleic acid, gama- linolenic acid, dihomo-gama-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid.
Structure of omega-3 PUFA:
\includegraphics[width=300bp, height=200bp, angle=0]{library/Omega3.eps}
Most important omega-3 PUFA are: alfa- linolenic acid (C18:3), eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA, and docosahexaen acid (C22:6) DHA,
Alfa linolenic acid can be changed to EPA only up to 15% in human physiology and only 4% can be change to DHA That is why about 50 g daily of rapeseed oil can substitute only 50 to 100 g fat fish in a week.
The transformation rate depends on the type of the nutrition. A high intake of linoleic acid and saturated fatty acids in relation to alfa-linolenic acid can strongly reduce synthesis of omega-3 fatty acids.

Alfa-Linolenic acid is available in green leaf vegetables,nuts, and some vegetable oils such as rapeseed oil, soya oil, wheat germ oil and walnut oil.

Linseed is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, being 40 to 60% alfa- linolenic from total oil. Linseed has therefore found its place in baking industry with 6 - 8% from dry weight in all types of bread.Linseed can also be used as animal feed to produce alfa- linolenic enriched foods like Eggs, butter, cheese and meat.

Feeding animals with linseed or linseed oil an increase of alfa- linolenic fatty acid is achieved.Feeding them with fish oil or seaweeds enriched with omega-3 fatty acids leads to an increase of DHA.


Eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA

Phytoplankton is the nutrition of fish of cold water and is the source of EPA and DHA (DHA = docosahexaen acid). Fish farming of eel, trout and salmon may produce a fish with reduced omega-3 fatty acids because of different nutrition. That is why fish from natural sources are of superior quality compared with fish from farms.

Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA are being produced microencapsulated using carbohydrates or protein basis such as maltodextrin, beta- cyclodextrin, egg white, gelatine or caseinate as covering film. In this way they can be added to beverages like orange juice.

Researches are being made to find other sources of omega-3.PUFA using single cells such as Crypthecodinum cohnii ( Dinoflagellata), Mortierella elongata (fungus), Schizochrytium (Microalgae).

The DART Study[1122] and the Lyon Diet Heart-Study [1123] have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acids have a protective activity against cardiac infarct using 200-400 g fat saltwater fish/week, or 3 times 0,5g/day fish oil and a diet rich in fruits and vegetables and little amount of meat and milk products.

Beginning with 1800 with the industrial era the nutrition changed. Total fat, saturated fats and omega-6 fatty acids increased rapidly and starting at 1930 trans-fatty acids as a result from hydration increased the unhealthy side, meanwhile healthy omega-3 fatty acids decreased constantly beginning with 1900.

According to DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung ) the intake of fat for an adult should be reduced to 30 to 35%. essential fatty acids should be 3,5% of total energy and should be distributed between 3% omega-6 and 0,5% omega-3 fatty acids. The quotient between the two should be 5:1. The amount of omega-3 fatty acids should be approximately 1 g/day.

European estimates indicate that only Portugal and Spain have an intake over 1 g/d. Germany has an undersupply of omega-3 fatty acids of only 1/3 of the necessary daily intake. Netherlands despite being known for herring fishery has an intake of only 1/5 of the necessary daily amount.

Target group for food enriched with omega-3 fatty acids should be early or newborn, pregnant women, nursing mothers and persons with cardiovascular diseases.

Recommendations to eat more fish or take fish oil capsules should be avoided

[1124]
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, advices to increase intake of fatty fish  and the actual intake of 100 mg/d of omega-3 fish oils up to 1000 mg (2 servings of oily fish) per week for prevention of chronic disease.

Amounts of 250 mg/d to as high as 1000 mg/d are suggested for secondary prevention of coronary artery disease, and amounts of 2000-4000 mg/d are recommended for the management of elevated triglyceride levels.

Jenkins, however, stresses that evidence for health benefits from eating more servings of oily fish is not conclusive, and must should to be seen to increase worldwide depletion of fish stocks.

The authors recommend not to propagate increase of intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids through fish consumption until alternative sources of omega-3 fatty acids from plants, algae, or yeast become more available. Evidences of benefits of fish oil for primary prevention of CVD cannot be supported for peoples eating a healthy lifestyle, eating a heart-healthy diet, exercising, and having a healthy body weight. Increasing demand of fish are depleting the fish population. Aquaculture increase the problem, because these fishes are fed with fish meal.

The American Heart Association (AHA), according to Dr. Penny M. Kris-Etherton, still stands by its recommendation to consume two servings of fatty fish fish per week to prevent cardiovascular diseases.

The Prevenzione trial is cited to have 15% benefit in the outcome of all-cause mortality, nonfatal miocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke. documented benefits that included a 45% reduction in sudden death. Heart and brain benefits from omega-3 fatty-acid consumption reports include a decrease in age-related memory loss and Alzheimer's disease. [1125] However, the DART-2 showed that men with angina who were advised to consume fish oil had an increased risk of cardiac death.

Biodiesel byproduct as omega-3 EPA fortified food

[1126]
In three to four years foods omega-3 fatty acid EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) fortified using byproduct of biodieselwill be on market depending on process optimization, yield of EPA and FDA approval.

According to Zhiyou Wen and colleagues crude glycerol, one of the major byproducts of the biodiesel industry, added to yeast extract and submitted to the activity of the mould Pythium irregulare may resulte in biomass which is rich in omega-3 fatty acid EPA.

To increase EPA content flaxseed oil and soybean oil was added to the mould culture. The mould elongated the shorter chains of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, into EPA and other longer chain fatty acids. The authors report a yield of glycerol-derived fungal biomass of 40 per cent carbohydrate, 15 per cent lipid, and 36 per cent protein.

The authors conclude that biodiesel-derived crude glycerol may be used for the production of EPA fortified food or feed using the mould Pythium irregulare, however, yields are low, compared with other procedure using microalgae, such as diatom.


The mould Pythium irregulare is a plant pathogen

[1127]
Pythium irregulare root rot and blackleg of geranium is a mefenoxam insensitivity re-emerging disease. The fungus is also commonly isolated from poinsettia, chrysanthemum, snapdragon, impatiens, and lavender. It is also known as downy mildew. Blight, damping off, root and other rots.

Diet and Angina Randomized Trial ( DART )and DART 2 Trial

[1128]
Burr and colleagues found in successive trials (DART) and (DART 2) conflicting results examining the effect of an increased intake of fatty fish, or the use of fish oil supplements, in reducing mortality in men with heart disease. The Diet and Reinfarction Trial (DART) [1129] reduced mortality by 29% in men recovering from acute myocardial infarction taking fish oil capsules or eating fatty fish.

The Diet and Angina Randomized Trial (DART 2) [1130]found that eating fatty fish or taking fish oil capsules did not reduce mortality, and increased the risk of cardiac and sudden death in men with angina. Burr and colleagues suggest that different results of both trials are due to different actions of n-3 fatty acids in acute and chronic conditions, together with different effects of eating fish and taking fish oil capsules.


Improved absorption of omega-3 fatty acids by pre-emulsification

[1131]
Plummer and colleagues (2007) studying the absorption of omega-3 fatty acid, found that pre-emulsifying a blend of a standardized oil increases significantly the postprandial plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) and the C18:3 (n-6), C18:3(n-3), C20:5(n-3) and C22:6 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels. C16:0 and C18:0 saturated fatty acids, the C18:1 (n-9) monounsaturated fatty acid and the C18:2 PUFA were not significantly changed, compared with a non-emulsified oil group.

The authors conclude that the emulsification of an oil mixture prior to ingestion increases the absorption of longer chain more highly unsaturated fatty acids (especially eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) but does not affect absorption of shorter chain less saturated fatty acids, and suggest that pre-emulsification of fish oils may be a useful means of boosting absorption of these beneficial fatty acids.
This study may lead to improved fish oil supplementation.

Riboflavin is used for food coloring. It has yellow color.Riboflavin is vitamin B 12 and is therefore a safe color.

Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals are compounds which normally occur in the body and have beneficial effects on health. As they often do not occur in natural foods they have to be released by food authorities of each country or handled as drugs.

SAMe ( S-adenosylmethionine ) enhances according to BASF well being.
5-m-THF (5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid )reduces according to BASF the risk of heart disease.These nutraceuticals were already launched in USA.


Kiwi

It is widely used as food because of its high content of vitamin C and its taste.
Allergy is often cited in relation with kiwi. It is supposed that instable allergens are of importance. As possible allergen thio-proteinase actinidin 23,5 kD; pl 3,1 is cited. It is similar to bromelain in pineapple and papain in Papaya.

Pastorello et al. (1996) has found as major allergen at 30kD the protein 22,24 (Actinidin) 28, 32, 38 and 41 kD.
Any attempt to modify the genetic code of kiwi should try to suppress these fractions as possible allergens.

Flavonoids and allergy [1777].
Satomi Yano and colleagues from Kyushu University found that diet rich in plant flavonoid such as apigenin (4', 5, 7,-trihydroxyflavone) from herbs, fruits and vegetables can reduce serum IgE and inflammatory cytokines such as RANTES (Regulated upon Activation Normal T cell Expressed and Secreted) and sTNFRI (tumor necrosis factor receptor I) and could protect and/or reduce the occurrence of asthma and other allergies associated with the immunoglobulin E (IgE).

The authors found that apigenin-rich foods, such as celery and parsley are often associated with adverse food reactions. Therefore they used a diet supplemented with apigenin. This diet reduced immune and inflammatory markers, such as IgE, IgG, IgM, IgA, and cytokine expression in mice significantly.

Other foods rich in apigenin are apples, beans, broccoli, cherries, grapes, leeks, onions, and tomatoes, as well as plant-derived beverages like tea and wine.

Apigenin and prostate tumor[1778]
Previous research into flavonoids, and particularly apignenin, has focused on the potential anti-cancer properties of the compounds.

Increased intake of fruits and vegetables may be associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer.
Apigenin, has shown remarkable anti-proliferative effects against various malignant cell lines like prostate cancer , slowing prostate tumour growth in mice.

A study presented by Sanjeev Shukla relates evidence of the in vitro and in vivo growth inhibitory effects of apigenin on tumour cells.


Algae

[1779]
There are up to 30000 types of algae which are being used in the production of drugs, cosmetics, thickening agent for soft cheese, puddings, ice cream and sauces, as animal feed, and fertilizer.

Algae produce organic compounds and oxygen using carbonic dioxide and solar energy. Microscopic algae are responsible for the major part of the photosynthesis in the sea.
Japan has a great consumption of algae such as:

Ao-nori,Awo-nori algae whose leaves are used as sushis(which are made of rice and other ingredients wrapped up in seaweed leaves),flakes for salads, roasted as spice. They are rich on minerals, iron and vitamins.
Porphyre tenera is an alga known as nori.

Kelp or Green Nori is generally used as thickening agent, alga meal, as spice. It is rich on iron,potassium, magnesium and vitamins.

Green laver,Sea lettuce(Ulva lactuca)is used as flakes and grind for salads, snacks and cookies.It is rich on iron,proteins,minerals and vitamins.
Alga composition:
Humidity, as plant: 80 to 90%
Humidity,dry : 10 to 20%
Carbohydrates: 50%
Minerals : 7 to 38% from dry weight
Proteins : 8% in the Kombu-weed and 35% in the Nori-leaves
Fat : 1 to 2%
Algae are rich on cellulose being therefore partially not digested when used in human nutrition.[1780]

Minerals found in algae:
Iron, iodine, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus and zinc.

Trace elements found in algae:
Aluminum, chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel and titanium.

vitamins found in sea weeds:
Vitamin A, B1, B2, B5, C, folic acid, niacin in fresh algae.
The pro-vitamin A (beta-carotin) is present in very high concentration in the variety Dulce and 50.0000 i.U.in 100g of Nori.

It is important as natural sources of alfa-tocopherols. Industry is making researches to substitue the synthetic provitamin A with natural pro-vitamin A from algae.
The green seaweed Dunaliella salina is very rich in beta-carotin.

Arame ( Eisenia bicyclis)is rich in potassium, calcium, trace elements in particular iodine and vitamins.
Different types of Laminarias which are brown algae and known as Kombu are very rich in iodine.

Carrageen is used as thickening agent in numerous foods. It is being obtained from the seaweed Chondrus crispus
Dulse(Palmaria palmata) is being used in the production of chips and other foods.

It is rich in proteins, minerals, trace elements and vitamins. In human medicine is dulse used against anemia during pregnancy, against problems with the stomach and intestines and is known to act against worms
Hijiki (Hizikia) has ten times the amount of calcium of milk. It is used against goitre because of its iodine.
   
Green algae,Chlorophyceae  
Ao-Nori, Awo-Nori Porphyra tenera
Green Nori, Sea Grass Enteromorpha intestinalis
Sea lettuce, green laver Ulva lactuca
Thongweed, Buttonweed, Sea Haricots, Sea Spaghetti Himanthalia elongata
   
Brown algae, Phaeophyceae  
Arame Eisenia bicyclis
Hijiki, Hizikia  
Kombu Laminaria japonica
Wakame Undaria pinnatifida
Forest kelp, Cuvie, May-weed, Sea-rods Laminaria hyperborea
   
Red algae, Rhodophyceae  
Agar-Agar Thickening agent
Dulse, Shell Dulse, Sea Grass Palmaria palmata
Irisch Moos,Jelli Moss, Carrageen, Carrageen Moss Chondrus crispus
Nori, Laver Porphyra laciniata
Nori, Laver, Purple Laver, Sloke Porphyra umbilicalis

Mannitol: Is a sugar which is being won from brown algae such as Kombu algae (Laminaria digitata with up to 16% of manitol). It has a sweetness equivalent of 60% of sugar.

Kelp was used as fertilizer in the 12. century. In the 17. century kelp was used in the production of sodium hydroxide in manufacturing of glass. The potassium of kelp was used to make gunpowder in World War I and II.
  Alaria Laminaria Laminaria Himanthalia Palmaria
  esculenta saccharina digitata elongata palmata
Protein 15% 9 11 9 18
Fat 1% 0,5 1 0,5 2
Carbohydrates 45% 60 45 60 48
Vitamin C 300ppm 15 15 2.000 200
Calcium 10.000ppm 9.000 13.000 9.000 5.000
Iodine 170ppm 2.000 2.500 2.000 300
Iron 100ppm 30 60 30 200
Magnesium 9.000ppm 6.000 7.000 6.000 3.000
Manganese 1ppm 10 8 8 100
Sodium 4,5% 3 3 3 2
  Alaria Laminaria Laminaria Himanthalia Palmaria
  esculenta saccharina digitata elongata palmata


  Chondrus Porphyra Ulva Enteromorpha
  crispus umbilicalis lactuca intestinalis
Protein 15% 20 20 14
Fat 2% 1 1 1
Carbohydrates 60% 60 44 45
Vitamin C 20ppm 500 150 80
Calcium 10.000ppm 5.000 7.000 8.500
Iodine 200ppm 300 200 50
Iron 200ppm 200 1.000 150
Magnesium 7.000ppm 3.000 28.000 25.000
Manganese 10ppm 40 300 8
Sodium 2% 2 1 8
Potassium 3%   0,7 0,5
  Chondrus Porphyra Ulva Enteromorpha
  crispus umbilicalis lactuca intestinalis



Sushi

[1781] Sushi is a traditional food of Japan which is known all over the world.The original meaning of Sushi was rice which had been turned sauer using winegar. Nowadays it stands for a special combination of Sushi-rice and other ingredients such as raw fish.

Classic Forms of Sushi
Nigiri-Sushi: Raw fish or shrimps are coated with Wasabipaste and placed on top of small rice dumplings.Nigri-Sushi is always served two at a time.

Maki-Sushi-roll: The filling is placed in the center of the roll and may contain two to five ingredients coated with rice, wraped in a layer of Nori.
There are different forms of Maki-Sushi such as: Hosomaki are small Sushis.

Futomaki are big ones.
Gunkan-Maki have rice as bottom, Nori as wall and different ingredients on top of the rice.

Ura-Maki-Inside Out is also known as California Roll which are nori leaves coated with rice and rolled so that the rice layer is outside and can be coated with sesame seeds or caviar.

Temaki-Cornet are leaves of Nori foldet as cornet with rice and plenty of ingredients inside.

Sashimi is Sushi without rice.All ingredients such as raw fish, vegetable, caviar and Nori leaves are placed on a Sushi board.

Chirashi is a layer of warm Sushi-rice with seafood on top in a bowl served with Soysauce.


Margarine

[289] As allergies are getting more frequent all possible allergens are controlled. In Leipzig (Germany) many families reported to have chosen margarine instead of butter.

Children of these families suffer more frequently from hay fever as children of families using butter in their nutrition. In those groups which had increased the intake of butter there were smaller levels of allergy - antibodies found.

These results should be analysed very carefully because they are based merely on a limited number of statistical cases.

The oversupply of our population with linolic acid from sunflower oil, corn germ oil, Soy and thistle oil can cause problems.

Linolic acid is an essential fatty acid. In small amounts it is indispensable for life. High levels of linolic acid act as basis for the synthesis of inflammatory hormones.

Together with the fact that a high level of linolic acid when burned can originate free radicals by unsufficient supply of tocopherol, and the fact that polyunsaturated fats oxidize and turn rancid very easily her intake should be reduced. Olive oil and rapeseed oil should be preferred[290]

As olive oil cannot supply the world demand of oil, only canola is left as ideal basis for the production of margarine.

Excessive amounts of olive oil may cause inhibition of phagocitosis of the reticular endothelian system (RES)[430]. 12 persons were given 240 ml olive oil to drink in form of an emulsion with water in a period of 24 hours. Three hours after the last portion of oil 2,5 mg/ Kg albumin marked with iodine-125 were given intravenous.

The level of marked albumin in blood was compared with the blood of control persons.

The slow decrease of blood albumin of the test persons after intake of the high amount of olive oil compared with a rapid decrease in the blood of control persons has led to the theory of inhibition of the RES caused by excessive intake of olive oil. This shows that large amounts of fat are unhealthy.


High-oleic sunflower seeds

New sunflower seeds with more than 80% of oleic acid are distributed by the BME ( Bundesernährungsministerium ) ministry of nutrition in Germany to test the possibility to use it as growing raw material.

This plant may become very important by growing need of oleic rich oil for human nutrition bearing in mind that high oleic olive oil is told to responsible for better health of the population of region of the Mediterranean Sea.[863].

Industry, traders, stores, and consumer should be aware that margarine containing rapeseed oil being better as made with sunflower and soybean oil. Butter and other saturated animal fats must also be reduced because of their content of cholesterol and the arteriosclerotic risk.

There are functional foods which are said to lower bad LDL cholesterol.
Margarine with this property contains plant sterol esters. [322].

When eaten regularly this margarine can reduce the level of LDL cholesterol in blood by as much as 14%. The results of a Mayo Clinic study presented at the 81st Annual American Dietetic Association Meeting in Kansas City has confirmed this activity of plant sterol esters.

Benecol is a margarine on market in Finland having plant sterol esters (sitostanol ester) as dietary ingredient.

Benecol margarine and Benecol cheese spread was launched on the Netherlands market in 1999 by Johnson & Johnson with cholesterol lowering claim.

Benecol cheese spread is based on the Benecol margarine. The health Ministry of Netherlands ordered to recall Benecol cheese spread as it is classified as Novel Food and must therefore undergo the approval procedure before entering the market.

Plant sterols

Plant sterols are naturally present in vegetable oils, in small amount in foods such as corn, wheat, rye, oats and olive oil and in wood in form of hydrated steroles called Stanoles.

Plant sterol esters are formed by esterifying sitosterol with fatty acids becoming fat-soluble.
Sitosterol is obtained as soybean extract.

The average intake of plant sterols is 300-500 mg/day.Vegetarians have a daily intake of 800 mg. According to Westrate[1109] there are 1,5 - 3 g/day necessary to lower blood cholesterol about 10%. Other studies such as the MRFIT- Study[1132] and Meta-Study of law et al. came to the same result. Plant steroles reduce blood LDL cholesterol. The HDL cholesterol remains unchanged.

Plant steroles are similar in its chemical configuration to cholesterol. They reduce the cholesterol blood level preventing it to be absorbed in the intestines and is being excreted with the excrements.

Less than 5% of phytosteroles are absorbed the prevailing part is eliminated with faecis carrying precipitated cholesterol.

There is also a competitive action between plant steroles and cholesterol in the affinity to the micelles as the plant steroles are more hydrophobic than cholesterol having therefore a higher affinity to the micelles which they fill, leaving any place to cholesterol, blocking thus the way in the interior of the cells.

Unilever wants to include Sterol derived from soybeans but must wait for the approval as novel food.

Benecol does not need to wait for an approval because it had been already launched before Novel Food Regulation came

Plant sterols contributed over one third of the LDL-cholesterol reduction

[1110]
High LDL-cholesterol levels are strongly associated to cardiovascular diseases. According to the guidelines of the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) the LDL-lowering effect of plant sterols/stanols esters, from soybean and tall pine-tree oils at dosages of 2-3 g/day lower LDL-C levels by 6 -15 percent with little or no change in HDL cholesterol or triglyceride levels. Whereas 2 g/day are recently considered as having maximal LDL lowering effect. Stanols are obtained hydrogenating plant sterols. The efficacy of both are similar. Because lipids are needed to solubilize stanol/sterol esters, they are usually available in commercial margarines. [1111]

According to a study leaded by David Jenkins the ATP III guidelines advocate effective combinations of cholesterol-lowering dietary components, resulting in large reductions in serum cholesterol. The authors assessed the contribution of the individual components of these diets. Plant sterols were selected because at 2 g/d, they have been reported to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) by 9% to 14%.

The researchers found that plant sterols contributed over one third of the LDL-C reduction seen with the dietary portfolio after 1 year of following dietary advice.

Consumption of Food and Beverages with Added Plant Sterols

[1112]
Food products with added plant sterols are widely available in the EU, such as yellow fat spreads, dairy products and sauces including mayonnaises. Consuming plant sterols has been shown to help reduce blood cholesterol as part of a healthy diet.

However, high doses can also reduce levels of carotenoids in the blood. These are a source of vitamin A and may help reduce the risk of certain chronic health disorders including some forms of cancer. Consumers should therefore restrict intake of such products to below the recommended maximum level of 3g per day.

EFSA Report on food and beverages with added sterols

[1113]
The report 2008 of the European Food Safety Authority on Food and beverages with added plant sterols highlights that while there seems to be little over-consumption of such products in the EU, a small subgroup appears to be consuming in excess of recommended amounts. It also reveals low consumer awareness of labelling and dietary guidelines for such products and of the need to consume sufficient fruit and vegetables to ensure robust blood carotenoid levels.

Structure of plant sterols:

Plant sterols are structurally related to cholesterol and can be divided into phytosterols and phytostanols, phytostanols being the saturated form of the phytosterols. Phytosterols and phytostanols both exist in free or esterified form. Phytostanols are less used in commercial products because the production is more expensive requiring hydrogenation and esterification while phytosterols require only esterification.

Plant sterols fall into one of three categories: 4-desmethylsterols (no methyl groups); 4-monomethylsterols (one methyl group) and 4,4-dimethylsterols (two methyl groups). The most common plant sterols are beta-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol and structurally these are very similar to cholesterol, belonging to the class of 4-desmethylsterols.

Intake recommendations:

It is clear that the manufacturers target a daily intake of between 1.5-3 g of phytosterol for an average person, covering the beneficial range as noted by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF, 2002a) [1114]. In many cases the portion size provides about a third of the recommended daily phytosterol intake and the manufacturers suggest accordingly that the specific product should be consumed three times a day or other phytosterol-enriched products should be consumed to supplement the intake.

There is a growing concern that, as the number of enriched product categories increases, consumers might use several products simultaneously and receive higher doses of plant sterols than intended.

The normal Western diet would contribute a daily supply of plant sterols in the range of 150-400 mg per person [1114]. It should be noted that vegetarian diets are closer to the upper range.

It has been found that plant sterols in the diet reduce the cholesterol absorption in humans and there is some evidence that levels of naturally occurring plant sterols might reduce blood cholesterol to a small degree. However, for an effective reduction higher doses are required. Scientific studies indicate that consumption of 1.5-3 g of plant sterols per day can significantly reduce the level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in individuals if consumed as part of a healthy diet. It can be concluded that the estimated average intake of 300 mg of naturally occurring plant sterols in the diet constitutes only about 10-20% of the recommended intake of 1.5-3 g

To take advantage of the cholesterol-lowering effect, an increasing number of food products with added plant sterols or plant sterol esters have become available on the EU market. Foods with added phytosterols or phytosterol esters require a novel food authorisation according to regulation 258/97/EC [405] since they were not used significantly as food in the European Union before 15 May 1997. Foods with added phytostanols or phytostanol esters do not need a novel food authorisation since they were already used as food within the EU before the introduction of the novel food legislation.

Plant sterols influence on carotene and other other essential fat-soluble micro nutrients

[1115]
Unfortunately, the consumption of high doses of plant sterols can also significantly reduce the blood levels of carotenoids and, to a lesser extent, other essential fat-soluble micro nutrients. Although the consequences of a persistently decreased blood concentration of carotenoids on human health are largely unknown, there could be a concern during pregnancy, lactation or infancy when vitamin A requirements are greater than normal. As a prudent precaution it has thus been suggested that intakes of plant sterols should not exceed 3 g per day. [1114]

Labelling of foods with added plant sterols

[1116]
The EC regulation 608/2004 imposes a statutory requirement for all products with added plant sterols to label the maximum daily dose of such compounds and include an advise pregnant or nursing women and children under 5 years of age to avoid consuming these products.

Resolution of the European Commission 200/500/EG. Phytosterine rich margarine

The Commission has allowed Unilever to put on market her new margarine containing a maximum of 8% of phytosterine corresponding 14% phytosterin ester.This fat spread is suitable for persons who want to lower their blood cholesterol.

Contraindications: Patients which are taking drugs to lower cholesterol should include this fat spread in their nutrition under supervision of a doctor.

Consuming this fat spread a significant reduction of vitamin A takes place. People with a deficiency of vitamin A (pregnant women, breast-feeding and children under 5 years) should be informed that the margarine is not suitable for these groups.

Consuming this margarine more fruits and vegetables should be included in the nutrition in order to compensate the reduction of vitamin A .

Unilever has to monitor the groups of consumers in order to inform the European Commission whether the margarine reaches the target group and how much other groups are getting exposed to a high phytosterin level.

Other companies trying to commercialize plant sterols are:
Forbes Medi-tech and Novartis using phytosterols made from wood and Monsanto extracting sterols from corn fibre oil and esterifying with ferulic acid as natural antioxidant Esters of sterols blocks cholesterol absorption inhibiting the transportation from the digestive tract to the liver.
The amount of total and LDL cholesterol are lowered.

Oil/fat Total sterols gramm in 100 g oil/fat
Palmkernel oil 0,08
Palm oil 0,04
Olive oil 0,11
Peanut oil 0,24
Rapeseed oil 0,62
Cotton oil 0,43
Corn oil 0,85
Soybean oil 0,34
Sunflower oil 0,35
Linseed oil 0,43


Oil/fat cholesterol brasicasterol campesterol stigmasterol sitosterol
Palmkernel oil 1 - 12 13 74
Palm oil 4 - 21 12 63
Olive oil - - 3 - 97
Peanut oil 1 - 12 12 76
Rapeseed oil - 10 27 - 63
Cotton oil - 1 8 - 91
Corn oil - - 20 6 74
Soybean oil - - 19 24 57
Sunflower oil - - 11 8 62*
Linseed oil 2 2 28 10 54*
* and other components


The Mayo Clinic Study on Plant Sterol Esters,October 21.1998

[322] A group of individuals who had borderline and mildly raised blood cholesterol were given three times a day 8 g of spread containing 1 g of plant sterol ester reducing 14% of LDL cholesterol after a period of 8 weeks.

The HDL cholesterol levels (the good one) did not decrease.


Classification of the steroles

Zoosteroles: Are the steroles which are present in animals. Most important of them is the cholesterol.It is present in brain (2,5%),heart (2,0%), egg yolk (1,5%), mayonnaise (0,25%), butter (0,25%),meat (0,07%) and fish (0,05%).

Phytosteroles: Are the steroles which are present in plants such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol.

Mykosteroles

\includegraphics[width=300bp, height=300bp, angle=0]{library/Steroles.eps}


Raffination of oils and steroles

Raffination of oils and fats removes components with bad taste and smell, such as free fatty acids, products of oxidation, ketones, aldehydes and ketones, waxes,slime and phosphatides. It also removes environmental contaminants, herbicides,pesticides, fungicides, polycyclic hydrocarbon, heavy metals and products of the metabolism of of microorganism leaving traces which are tolerable.

\includegraphics[width=400bp, height=400bp, angle=0]{library/Raffination.eps}

Raffination of oils remove part of the steroles. Refined oils have 0,1 to 0,45% of steroles left. Vegetable oil cannot be a source of a daily intake of approximately 2 g/day.

Acid Value: AOAC pH-Metric Determination in Vegetable Oils without Titration

[825] Free fatty acids are measured as a quality control of vegetable oils during their production, trade, and use. It is expressed as acid value (AV).

According to AOAC the acid value of edible oils can be determined without titration using a reagent containing a solution of water, isopropyl alcohol and triethanolaminea. The oil sample is mixed with the reagent in the pH-metric cell, free fatty acids from the sample are extracted into the reagent.

The initial pH, called conditional pH'1, is measured, a standard acid (HCl) is added, and the final pH, pH'2, is measured. AV is calculated from the difference between pH'1 and pH'2.


Texture of fats,oils and margarine

Fats and oils modify the structure, the stability the shelf life and the taste of food. It is therefore very important to determine the texture of fats and their blends.

Dilatation values: The fat Industry used to determine the texture of fats by measuring the dilatation of the product at different temperatures.
The dilatation of fats goes straight on in solid form. As soon a part of the fatty acids melts the dilatation graphic suffers a jump tha can be seen on a diagram and can be expressed as percentage of solids at different temperatures. 10, 20, 30 and 40$^{o}$ usually reported. The method was very work intensive and was therefore changed by NMR values using Brookfeld equipment.

NMR-values
As explained above, fats give a different response in solid or in melted form. This can be measured by Nuclear Mass Resonance ( NMR ) giving the percentage of solids in fats present in different temperatures.

NMR- values differ about 4 points to the old not any more used method of dilatation. So if you find in old literature dilatation values you can compare it with NMR-values subtracting 4%.

NMR values are important to fat industry. They gives informations about melting response of the product at different stages of their using. Bakery, chocolate an all manufacturing factories depend on the texture of fat during processing in their equipments at different temperatures.

Texture analysis of fats oils and margarine
To have more informations about taste properties of fats oils and margarine and to express them in figures a conic shaped metal piece with a long stem was dropped under determined conditions on the margarine.

The immersion of the cone expressed in centimeters gave an indication concerning the texture of the fat blend. This method was very imperfect and giving often false response.

To overcome these problems a texture analyzer such as TA.XT2i [826]have been developed. It consists of a conic sensor with an angle of 45$^{o}$ and a plate with the same angle where the fat is placed.

The force which is necessary to deform the test material is by means of a graphic analysed giving so informations about the spreading properties of margarine and other fat spreads showing the force which is necessary to deform the product.

\includegraphics[width=350bp,height=350bp,]{library/Texture_of_margarine.eps}

Spreading properties and hardness result from the relation of solids to liquid oil at 10$^{o}C$ (refrigerator) and 20$^{o}C$ (room temperature).

Smoothness and stiffness as well as other undesired properties of fat blends depend on the dimension and form of the fat crystals. A product is smooth when the crystals are small. Stiffness and other failures result from great crystals. Texture analysis can express such failures in form from graphics.

Deep frying oil and shortenings

The fast food is mainly based on deep frying using oil or fat.

The oil used is soybean oil rapeseed oil and cotton oil which may be hydrogenated. Palmoil and his fractions are also used in large scale.

Soybean oil due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids is not suitable for deep frying because it deteriorates very soon during frying.

Soybean and cottonseed oil is therefore used in hydrogenated form to reduce the chemical reactions during long periods of heating.

Partially hydrogenated oil however has high amounts of trans fatty acids 24.28. Partially hydrogenated oils are used in North and South America because they are produced there.

Palmoil and his fractions are widely used in Europe because soybeans as well as palmoil are imported.Soybean oil offers therefore no price advantage.

Recent studies have shown that the trans fatty acids originated from hardening process increases the LDL cholesterol and lowers the HDL cholesterol in plasma. Moreover the trans fatty acids are suspected to interfere with the metabolism of essential fatty acids.

Danish retail margarine is now produced with trans-free hard fats. Industrial margarine such as used for backery has today under 5% of trans fatty acids. In near future "zero" will be the standard.(Peter Petersen, Aarhus Olie, Margarine-New Trends for a New Millenium Anuga Food Tec 2000, Cologne 13 April 2000.)

Margarine free of atherogenic trans-fatty acids

[431]
Kim, Lumor and Akoh 2008, researchers from the University of Georgia developed alternatives to partially hydrogenated vegetable oils high in trans fatty acids used for the production of margarine and other foods.

Structured lipids for formulating trans-free margarines were synthesized by lipase-catalyzed interesterification of the blends of canola oil, palm stearin, and palm kernel oil in weight ratios of 50:30:20 or 60:25:15. Both blends were trans-free and had similar hardness, adhesiveness, or cohesiveness to margarines which were produced from hydrogenated vegetable oils margarine fats high in trans-fratty acids.

The authors claim that lipase-catalyzed interesterification of canola /palm stearin/ palm kernel oil is the is one of the most successful process in the production of trans-free margarines.

Palmoil

[432] Palm oil is one of the world's most popular vegetable oils.

Ninety per cent of the world's palm-oil exports come from the oil-palm plantations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Most of these plantations are on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. The very lowland forest that the oil-palm industry favours for conversion is the only remaining habitat of the orang-utan.

Destructive oil-palm plantations will continue to spread, and the forests of Borneo and Sumatra will continue to be destroyed, unless the governments of Indonesia and Malaysia recognise the customary land rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.

Solution: This report calls for an immediate end to all forest conversion to oil palm, and recognition of the customary land rights of local people.

Boycotting palm oil is not the answer. There are also serious social and environmental problems associated with growing other vegetable oils, such as soy in Brazil.

The UK is the second biggest importer of palm oil in Europe after the Netherlands. UK imported 914.000 tons in 2004, representing 23% of total palm oil import in the EU. The demand will further increase with the development of bio-fuel plants.

As the promise of profits increases, the big players are beginning to get involved. The two largest external stakes in Greenergy Biofuels are held by Tesco and Cargill.

Tesco will shift the product on its petrol forecourts, while Cargill - one of two giants that dominate the world food market - will supply the feedstock. Gone are the days when biofuels meant bearded hippies running their clapped-out vans on recycled chip fat. [433]

Biofuels Corporation has just finished building a biodiesel plant at Seal Sands, near Middlesbrough, and supplies fuel throughout the UK, with an annual production capacity of 284 million litres of biodiesel, using as feedstock palm oil from Malaysia and other vegetable oils.

Greenergy Biofuels, with its new plant at Immingham on Humberside, expects palm oil to be one of the main feedstocks. [433]

Palm oil health related concerns
According to Enas tropical oils, such as coconut and palm oil are very rich in saturated fats. Their cholesterol-raising potential is similar to or higher than most animal fats. Liberal use of these oils should be discouraged. [434]

The American Medical Association expressed concern about the atherogenicity of coconut and/or palm oil in food products. Saturated fatty acids are found primarily in animal products and in tropical oils"(coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils).

Persons attempting to limit saturated fatty acid intake should be aware of the high content of saturated fatty acids in tropical oils. [435]

According to a meta-analysis by Clarke and colleagues, the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol is important. The higher the ratio, the greater the risk.

Palmitic acid increases that ratio more than other saturated fatty acids, including lauric acid and myristic acid, which are abundant in palm kernel oil and coconut oil, the other tropical oils. Palm oil increases the total:HDL cholesterol ratio more than the average U.S. dietary fat, though less than stick margarine, typical vegetable shortening (made with partially hydrogenated vegetable oil).[436]

The World Health Organization has stated that there is convincing evidence that palmitic acid increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. [437]

A U.S. government regulation requires that, by January 1, 2006, food labels list a product's content of trans fat, which comes from partially hydrogenated vegetable oil and is a major cause of heart disease. Many food processors are seeking to eliminate trans fat by switching to other oils. Palm oil is one such alternative. [438]

The Center for Science in the Public Interest in a letter to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in June 1, 2005 expressed concerne that the use of palm oil may increase due to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) impending labeling requirement for trans fat. The group urged the FDA to encourage companies to reformulate foods without both partially hydrogenated oil and palm oil. [439]

Toxicology of heated fat

Oil and fat being heated in presence of oxygen form hydroperoxydes [440]
Overheated fat causes irritation of the gastric system, enlarged liver retarding and even death of animals. This is intensified by an unsufficient supply of vitamin E.

Polymerization under high temperatures can also take place without oxygen. Chemical compound formed during deep frying are:Aldehydes, free fatty acids, alcohol, lactones, esters, ketone, aromatic compounds and epoxides.

Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids are the most toxic of all mentioned compounds.

Enzymes bearing, SH-groups are inhabited by peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids are also formed without strong heating. Atmospheric oxygen can originate peroxides when unsufficient antioxidants like alfa-tocopherol is present.

Vegetable fats and oils have sufficient natural tocopherol to protect them from oxidation. Wrong food processing such as heating and long time storage reduces the natural antioxidant system.Strong heating and long storage of oils and fats during reffination should be avoided.

Sometimes processing of food destroys natural tocopherol Peroxides of linolic acid has proved to be toxic for the miocardium, it has breast tumor activity [440].


Vitamin E in edible oils

Edible oils are a source of tocopherol. Some of them have many unsaturated bounds which can form peroxides in human organism. These lipid peroxides which harm the cell membrane. Signal transduction and permeability of the cell membrane are disturbed.

To avoid the formation of lipid peroxides natural antioxidants such as vitamin E are necessary summing up to 0,3 mg alfa tocopherol for 1 gram of double bound.
The vitamin E which is available as antioxidant after deducting its own need are as follow:

Wheat germ oil: is rich on vitamin E (220mg/100g).After deduction of its own need there 170 mg/100 are available.Unfortunately it is very expensive and is therefore not used commonly in Kitchen

Sunflower oil:It has about 50 mg/100g tocopherol. After deduction of its own need there are about 19 mg/100g available. Butter fat:It has about 2 mg Tocopherol in 100 g fat.Its own need demands more than that, so that a supplement of tocopherol of 0,2 mg/100g is necessary.

Maize oil: It has 30 mg tocopherol/100g and around 60% of polyunsaturated fatty acids . Its own need of antioxidants to avoid peroxidation exceeds by far its natural content of vitamin E.

It needs therefore a supplementation of 5 mg/100 g for its own need. Be sure there is vitamin E added to maize oil otherwise it would increase the demand of tocopherol from other sources.

Lard:: It has about 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids and 0,3% vitamin E/100 g. The demand for its own antioxidant need is 6 mg/100g which has to be supplied from other sources.

Safflower oil: It has 75 to 80% of polyunsaturated fatty acid and 35 mg tocopherol/100.Its own antioxidant need 13 mg/ 100 from other sources. Be sure there is vitamin E added to safflor oil to avoid a negative balance of vitamin E.


Tocopherol isomer Biological activity of alpha tocopherol
   
beta tocopherol 30%
   
Gamma tocopherol 15%
   
delta tocopherol 1%

[1050]
Oil or fat Total tocopherol alpha tocopherol beta gamma delta
Coconut oil 80 36 - 47 -
Maize oil 1020 126 - 894 -
Cottonseed oil 1100 760 - 340 -
Olive oil 200 - - - -
Palmoil 460 150 - 240 70
Soybean oil 1140 80 - 660 400
Sunflower oil 595 560 - 35 -
Wheatgerm oil 3800 - - - -
Tallow 10 - - - -
Lard 27 - - - -
Butter 30 - - - -

Colon carcinogenicity of heated oil

Corn germ oil heated at 210$^\circ$C together with bubbles of air oxidize rapidly. This oil after cooling when fed to rats activated enzymes such as benzpyren hydroxylase in the mucous layer of their colon. Liver and enzymes of small intestine remained unchanged.

Benzpyren hydroxylase triggered by heated corn germ oil could increase the transformation of procarcinogenic products in carcinogenic ones .

Deep frying should not exceed the temperature of 180$^\circ$C .Heating time should be short. Intermittent heating and cooling should be avoided because it leads to form polymerization of fat.

Recommendations for Frying Oils, Third International Symposium on Deep-fat Frying March 20-21,2000,Hagen/Wesphalia,Germany

(http:www.gdch.de/dgf/recomm.htm) shortened. On this symposium the following recommendations for frying oils were adopted by the delegate:

1- Principle quality index for deep-fat frying should be sensory parameters of the food being fried.

2- Analysis of suspect frying fats and oils should utilize two tests to confirm abuse.
Recommended analytic should be:
Total Polar Materials (24%)
Polymeric Materials (12%)

3- The use of rapid tests for monitoring oil quality are recommended. Rapid tests should exhibit the following characteristics:
Correlate with internationally recognized standard methods
Safe for use in food processing/preparation area
Quantify with oil degradation
4- Previous work: There are no health concerns associated with consumption of frying fats and oils that have not been abused at normal frying conditions. ( Note of the author of OurFood: There are health concerns with the consumption of frying fats related to trans-fatty acids, so fried food should be consumed with reserve. For further information search in "Physiology".
5- Encourage development
6- Encourage and support basic research
7- Use of filter materials to maintain oil quality.
8- Used, but not abused , frying oils may be topped up or diluted with fresh oil with no adverse effects on quality.

Group Subgroup Plant Name
       
Legumen      
    Soya Glycine max (L.) Merill
    Peanut Arachis hypogaea
    Oil lupine Lupinus albus
       
Erucic acid plants      
  Rape group    
    Rape Brassica napus L. oleifera
    Rape of India Brassica napus L. dichotoma
    Sarson, Colza India Brassica napus. glauca
    Ravison,Colza Brassica campestris)
  Mustard group    
    White mustard Sinapis alba
    Other rape seed crops  
      Camelina sativa
    Rocket Eruca vesicaria sativa
    OIl radish Raphanus sativus
       
Flax plants      
    Linseed oil Linum usitatissimum
       
Mallow      
    Cottonseed oil Gossypium hirsutum
       
Other oil plants      
  Oilseeds    
    Maize Zea mays
    Rice Oryza sativa
    Wheat Triticum ssp
    Sunflower Helianthus annuus
    Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
    Wine Vitis vinifera
       
Palm tree      
    Oil palm Elaeis guineensis
    Coco palm Cocos nucifera
    Olive tree Olea europaea
    Babassu palm Orbignia speciosa L.


Group Oil or fat Animal Name
Land animals      
  Lard pigs Sus domesticus
  tallow bovine Bos taurus
  Mutton fat Mutton Ovis aries
  Goose fat Goose Anser domesticus
       
       
Marine animals      
  Mamals Whale  
    Seals  
  Fish Herring Clupea harengus
    Sardine Sardinops caerulea
    Sardine of Peru Clupeapilchardus
  Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus  


Soya bean

The soya plant was known in china since antiquity. The cultivation of Soya started in USA in 1910 increasing rapidly in 1936 and by beginning of the II world war. About 90% of the world consumption is covered by USA and china. Brazil covers about 12%.

Soya and peanut are plants of the family of the legumen.They form fruit leaves which fold forming husks.On the edge of the fruit leaves the seeds are attached In case of peanuts the husks are underground. That is why peanuts need a special soil with high content of sand which turns the soil soft this enables the husks to spread around.

Soya beans are rich in oil, proteins and carbohydrates. The beans are processed in the country of destination. After winning oil and lecithin from the beans The soya cake is left over from the production of oil.It is used as valuable animal feed because of the high content of proteins and carbohydrates.Therefore the Soya beans are traded at the stock market, stored and transported in form of beans.

Other oilseeds like palmoil, palmkernel oil or coco nut oil are processed in the countries of origin because the leftovers from the winning of oil are not valuable enough to pay the costs of transportation. Lecithin Lecithin of soya beans is a valuable ingredient of foods and has many uses in pharmacy. Lecithin is a part of the cell wall of the nervous system.

The spread of genetic modified seeds all over the earth is the reason why all efforts are being made to find substitutes for soya lecithin. On market are already lecithin from rape oil. The amount being obtained from rape however cannot cover the needs of the international market. The purity of nature of soya plant should therefore be protected.

The plants of the family of Leguminosae ( Soya and peanuts) can undergo symbiosis with certain bacteria which can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. This is the reason why the seeds of these plants are rich in proteins making the valuable for human and animal nutrition.

Soya proteins are used in in backery,as substitute for meat and as fortifier in sport medicine. In case of allergy against milk protein soya milk made of soya proteins can be used as substitute.

Calcium fortification of soymilk [1034]
The protein of soymilk and other high protein drinks interacts with with calcium lactate and precipitates out. Not fortified soy milk have not more than 20 mg of calcium/100 ml. Producers are eager to fortify soymilk and rice drinks with 120 mg of calcium /100 ml to match it with milk.

High protein content of soymilk and rice drinks, acidity of acidified milk products and tannins, and other polyphenols interact with calcium. Fortification with calcium to justify high calcium claim reduces shelf life of the product.

Inorganic calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate have lower bioavailability than organic calcium lactate, calcium gluconate, calcium ciitrate.

According to Sojaland, Schwerin-based company owned by Wild, the new capacity is intended to improve product taste. The soy foods started as health foods and are now located in the mainstream sector based on improvements to taste which do not have the typical beany taste. [1048]

Health benefits: The health benefits from soy milk and other soy foods are such as for menopausal women, the products present an alternative to dairy for the lactose intolerant. Traditional dairies expand their range into soy with a variety of taste.

Soy isoflavones are involved in building bone mass, suppressing bone turnover and enhancement of calcium absorption.


Tofu

Tofu is a cheese-like product of Soymilk which is curdled by a coagulant.It is known as soybean curd.

Calcium sulfate (gypsum), Nigari ( a mixture of magnesium chloride, sodium chloride won from sea water), lemon juice or vinegar are used as coagulant.

Calcium sulfate increases tofu content of calcium of . Nigari is told to produce a better tastes of the resulting tofu.


Rape oil

Rape plants are being cultivated in Europe (Germany, France, Netherlands and Scandinavia, Sweden).Canada is one of the main producer of rape. Argentina and Japan must also be mentioned.
Rape seed has 30 to 50% of oil, up to 25% of proteins.

In 1960 was noted that erucic acid which was present in the rape oil in about 50% had a necrotic toxic effect on the heart muscle and deposit of fat in the heart muscle. A selection of seeds made it possible to reduce erucic acid under 1% turning therefore rapeseed oil a valuable part of nutrition.

Erucic free sorts of Brassica campestris and B. napus are cultivated as summer seed in Canada and Brassica napus as winter seed in Germany
Rapeseed oil has aquire an importance as renewable energy as it can be used as substitute for diesel oil. Erucic acid [1049]

Erucic acid is a substance naturally found in some oils derived from plants, primarily in some varieties of mustard seed oil and rapeseed oil. Although there have been no confirmed cases of erucic acid toxicity in humans, high levels of erucic acid have been linked to the formation of fatty deposits in heart muscle in animals.

Erucic acid is a 22-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid with a single double bond at the omega 9 position. Erucic acid constitutes about 30-60% of the total fatty acids of rapeseed, mustard seed and wallflower seed and up to 80% of the total fatty acids of nasturtium seeds. Erucic acid has also been found in some marine animal oils.

The Erucic Acid in Food Regulations 1977 (S.I. 1977 No. 691 [as amended]) limit the erucic acid content of foods to no more than 5% of the total fatty acid, in products with more than 5% fat (the latter restriction does not apply for foods aimed at infants or young children).

In response to potential safety concerns associated with high dietary exposure to erucic acid (myocardial lipidosis and heart lesions in laboratory rats), efforts were made, using selective breeding, to transfer a low erucic acid trait into agronomically adapted cultivars of Brassica napus and B. campestris, which are used in the production of rapeseed oils. These varieties of rape were superseded by the canola varieties in the 1980s.

Canola varieties have improved agronomic characteristics, such as increased yield and improved disease resistance. By definition, canola refers to B. napus and B. campestris lines containing less than 2 % of the total fatty acids as erucic acid.

These canola varieties comprise almost the entire rapeseed crop produced in the world today. In 1997, the erucic acid content of 50% of the Australian canola crop was 0.3 % or less of the total fatty acids. The maximum reported erucic acid level was 1.6 % of the total fatty acids.

The term canola has been registered and adopted in Canada to describe the oil (seeds, plants) obtained from the cultivars Brassica napus and Brassica campestris.

In 1986, the definition of canola was amended to refer to B. napus and B. campestris (now Brassica rapa) lines containing $<$2% erucic acid in the oil and $<$30 micromol/g glucosinolates in the air-dried, oil-free meal. Throughout this document, the term "low erucic acid rapeseed" refers to low erucic acid, low glucosinolate rapeseed, or canola.

"Double zero" rapeseed varieties indexRapeseed, double zero [1049]
In Europe, "double zero" rapeseed varieties are defined as those producing seed with a maximum glucosinolate content of 25 moles/g (seed weight) and with a moisture content of 9% (determined by method EN ISO 9167-1:1995) and, having erucic acid content of not more than 2% of the total fatty acid content (determined by method EN ISO 5508:1995).

Developments in Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed
After ten years of backcrossing and selection to transfer the low erucic acid trait into agronomically adapted cultivars, the first low erucic acid varieties, B. napus and B. campestris were released in 1968 and 1971, respectively (Eskin et al., 1996).

In Canada, the terms LEAR (low erucic acid rapeseed oil) and Canbra (Canadian Brassica) were used to identify rapeseed oil containing less than 5% erucic acid. Rapeseed meal is used exclusively as a high protein feed supplement for livestock and poultry.

Prior to the late 1970s, the use of this oilseed processing by-product as an animal feed was limited by the presence of glucosinolates in the seed.

Glucosinolates themselves are generally considered to be innocuous, however the hydrolysis products have negative effects on animal production.

The low palatability and the adverse effects of glucosinolates due to their antithyroid activity led to the development of varieties of rapeseed which have combined low levels of both glucosinolates and erucic acid (also known as "double low" varieties).

Low erucic acid rapeseed breeding programs in the 1980s and 1990s have produced cultivars with higher yields, increased oil and protein contents, earlier maturity, yellow seeds, reduced green seed and improved disease, insect and herbicide resistance (Eskin et al., 1996).


Sugar free products

Sugar free products are increasingly accepted by the consumer. They have sometimes better quality and taste compared with sugar products.Certain types are teeth friendly, low in calories and suitable for diabetic.


Isomalt

[827] Isomalt is a sugar replacer produced from sugar beet. His taste is not so sweet as sugar and it has no cooling effect which is often unwanted.It is low hygroscopic which makes candies stable without being wrapped one by one.

Isomalt is a mixture of 6-O-alfa-D-glucopyranosol-D-sorbitol (1,6-GPS) and 1-O-alfa-D-glucopyranosol-D-mannitol-dihydrate (1,1-GPM).

Increasing the 1,6-GPS part, which is water soluble part, isomalt increases the solubility kinetic soluble as maltitol and is comparable to xylitol.

Xylitol, Xilit, also called wood sugar or birch sugar, (2,3,4,5)tetrahydroxy-pentanol, (C5H12O5) (E 967): [828] [839]
Xylitol is a five-carbon sugar alcohol that is used as a sugar substitute. It can be extracted from birch, rasperries, plums, and corn and is primarily produced in China. It is roughly as sweet as sucrose, but contains less than 40% food energy.

It is very popular in Finnland which is considered its "home country". It can have a mild laxative effect at high doses. It has no known toxicity. It is a popular sweetener for the diabetic diet in some countries.

Xylitol belongs to the polyol family of sugar alcohols. It is as sweet as sucrose, xylitol is the sweetest of all the polyols, but is said to have no after-taste and is safe for diabetics.

Xylitol is increasingly being used as a sugar substitute because it has one-third fewer calories, a cool mint flavour, helps fight cavity-causing bacteria and does not involving insulin. The EU Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) authorised polyols for use in foods are sorbitol, xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, maltitiol and isomalt.

Production of xylitol
Xylitol is won from birch-wood fibres under acids, high pressure and temperature, chemical catalysts followed by separation and purification steps.

US Agricultural Research Service (ARS) chemist Badal Saha Timothy D. Leathers and collaborators developed a technology experimenting with yeasts like Aureobasidium, Pichia guilliermondii, Candida peltata and modified Escherichia coli bacteria, which can convert the hemicellulose sugars xylose and arabinose from corn fiber leftovers of U.S. ethanol production or other sources into xylitol.

Xylitol reduces browning and degradation of preservative in beverages

[840]
Carmen Campos and colleagues 2008 studying the interaction between aspartame, glucose and xylitol in aqueous model systems of pH 3.00 and containing potassium sorbate found that 0.050 to 0.500 per cent aspartame reduced the degradation of potassium sorbate from of system. Xylitol was used as humectant to minimized aspartame degradation and non-enzymatic browning development.

According to Campos the preservative potassium sorbate suffers an oxidative degradation in aqueous solutions and brown pigments develop, affecting the microbial stability and the sensory quality of the food.

The authors stress that the presence of aspartame, xylitol or glucose and their mixtures produced a synergistic effect on sweetness intensity.
The authors concluded that xylitol and the use of more than one sweetener would enhance sweetness of the product and minimize degradation of potassium sorbate and reduce browning development.

Tomato ketchup, tomato and tomato pulp

Tomato ketchup has a growing acceptance all over the world.It was born in USA and soon became a place in fast food restaurants. Children like it because of the color and last but not least because of strong taste.

In German 1,4 Kg of tomato Ketchup were eaten each year ( Weber, 1992) Tomato ketchup is produced from tomato pulp, salt, sugar and other monosaccharides, vinegar and spices.Onions garlic, thickening agents like carob seed, Guar seed, gum tragacanth and starch may be used.

In Germany the Bundesverband der Deutschen Feinkostindustrie (The association of the German fine food industry) has established a guideline for tomato Ketchup.

At least 24,1% of tomato pulp 28-30% dry matter also called double concentrated tomato pulp are to be used for tomato ketchup. High quality products have up to 37% of tomato pulp double concentrated.
Tomato pulp is a basic part of tomato ketchup. It is therefore very intensively submitted to quality analysis.
Taste, odor and color are important tests on receipt of tomato pulp.
Some further quality criteria are given below[311]:
EtOH TA CA CA/Ta L-LA D-LA AA SA
0,1 16,9 17,9 1,06 0,8 1,3 0,4 2,5
0,1 17,3 16,2 0,94 0,9 0,6 0,5 2,0
0,1 16,6 16,6 1,00 0,5 0,4 0,6 1,5
0,1 18,5 19,7 1,06 1,1 0,9 0,4 2,4
0,1 19,5 19,7 1,01 0,6 0,7 0,6 1,9
0,1 19,4 20,6 1,06 0,5 0,3 0,3 1,1
0,1 19,6 17,4 0,89 0,3 0,3 0,9 1,6
0,1 16,9 17,2 1,02 0,6 0,3 0,5 1,4
0,1 17,4 16,4 0,94 0,1 0,1 0,5 0,7

EtOH Ethanol
TA Total acids as citric acid
CA Citric acid
L-LA L-lactic acid
D-LA D-lactic acid
AA acetic acid
SA Sum of L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid and acetic acid.
  All numbers are g/Kg
EtOH TA CA CA/Ta L-LA D-LA AA SA
4,39 15,0 9,3 0,62 5,7 3,6 2,2 11,6
0,87 24,2 18,6 0,77 4,6 3,7 4,2 12,5
2,28 24,4 16,0 0,66 8,1 4,0 3,1 15,2
0,68 18,1 10,4 0,57 3,5 5,4 2,8 11,7
0,1 17,4 8,3 0,48 4,7 3,4 2,7 10,7
4,57 17,6 13,6 0,77 3,8 3,3 1,4 8,5
7,5 17,3 12,2 0,71 3,6 2,1 1,3 7,0
1,76 16,8 7,7 0,46 7,5 3,1 4,6 15,2
1,2 15,4 7,7 0,50 6,8 2,6 4,0 13,4
0,10 19,1 12.4 0,65 4,9 4,3 2,2 11,4
2,42 18,8 13,2 0,70 3,5 2,6 2,2 8,3
2,77 18,0 11,2 0,62 4,5 3,4 3,4 11,3
1,26 18,2 12,6 0,69 3,6 3,3 1,4 8,3
2,40 18,2 10,2 0,56 4,9 3,4 4,0 12,3
10,4 15,8 12,3 0,78 1,0 0,9 1,3 3,2
0,96 17,3 7,8 0,45 3,3 2,7 3,0 9,0
1,26 17,6 7,0 0,40 2,9 6,5 1,6 11,1
Ethanol is present
Relation citric acid/total acid the relation in spoiled pulp is
  between 0,4 and 0,9. Good pulp has
  a relation over 0,9 as citric
  acid is metabolized by spoiling bacteria.
Sum of organic acids The Sum of L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid
  acetic acid over 3 g/Kg.These acids are
  formed during spoilage.

Good tomato pulp has the following analytical data All mentioned analytical data testing tomato pulp should be considered together because different acids are formed by different species of bacteria.
Recently ergosterol is also used in quality control of tomato pulp, being a maximum of 3,0 mg/Kg allowed.
Tomato pulp of the European Union is being produced mainly in Italy, Greece and Spain.
Pulp of Turkey, and Uzbek (Russia ) are imported in small amount.
The quality varies to its origin and producer.
The products of northern Italy such as the region of Parma are of high quality. The main product of this region is the pulp which is concentrated and packed assepticaly without delay during harvest in these factories, thus giving yeasts, moulds and bacteria no chance of spoilage.
In southern Italy, such as the region of Neapel and Salermo the main products are peeled and crushed tomatoes. The rest of this production is used to manufacture tomato pulp.
As the capacity of the production line during harvest in these factories are insufficient, the pulp is left in open barrels, unprotected, sometimes exposed to sun. Deterioration takes place.
The Ubekistan tomato pulp is triple concentrated. Due to old technology the color and the taste are of very low quality.
The biogenic acidsaflatoxins and other contaminants are originated under these conditions.
Color and taste are often a useful indicator of bad manufacturing practice such as described by Hanewinkel-Meshkini [314]
At first the Howard mould count ( HMC ) was used to monitor mould activity in tomato pulp.
Moulds are a hazard in tomato pulp because of possible production of mycotoxines such as tenuazonic acid from the mould Alternaria alternata (tenuis), Alternaria tenuissima , Alternaria kikuchiana, Alternaria longipes (Roth et al 1990).

Jasmonic acid in ozone stressed tomato plants [315]
Ozone activates defence responses in plants according to Zadra and coleagues from the University of Perugia. The researchers fumigated tomato plants with ozone. The highest concentration of jasmonic acid in the leaves of these plants were noted 9 hours after the treatment. Jasmonic acid concentration in leaves of stressed plants increased 13-fold. The level of endogenous methyl-jasmonate was not altered during the experiment.

Bacteria deteriorating tomatoes

Cooling tomatoes to 6C reduces deterioration significantly.
Tomatoes were at first cultivated in South America. The name was "tumatl" meaning "bad taste" and were brought to Europe by the Spanish conquistadores.

At first used as decoration the plant was told later to have erotical activity and was therefore classified by the church as "plant of Satan".
Only after World War II tomatoes became largely used as food in Germany,
Tomatoes are now widely known as base for the production of tomato juice, baked, cooked or peeled tomatoes, as pulp in sauces, in pieces in salads, on pizzas and last but not least as tomato ketchup.
Tomatoes are eaten more than other vegetables[316]
Tomatoes 15,3
Onions 6,0
Cucumber 5,7
Carrots 5,5
Mushrooms 2,5
Beans 1,9
Asparagus 1,3

Industry in Germany has intensified analytical supervision of tomato concentrate used in the production of tomato ketchup and related products.

The effort of quality management triggered by certain publications of test magazines, the HACCP concept and ISO 9.000 resulted in increasing quality and security of tomato pulp used in the production of tomato ketchup and related products.

Pesticides in tomatoes

Pesticides can be present in tomatoes and related products.
Of actual concern are: Farmers should use pesticides only in accordance to users instructions.
All efforts should be undertaken to make tomatoes and relate products safe and keep a high quality standard all over the world.

Developing countries should invest much work to garantee standards of the Codex Alimentarius.


Origine of tomato concentrate

Tomato concentrate is being produced in large scale in Italy in the region of Parma, Grece, Turkey,Spain and China in the Xinjang region.

Meat and poultry, growing market and environment

The production of meat from pigs in Germany has increased since 1960 about 60%. At the same time the number of animal owners has been 85% reduced. This causes a great concentration of animals in some places, creating an environmental problem with growing amount of liquid manure.

Liquid manure is a good fertilizer when used in small amount.In case of intensive animal breeding it turns out to be an environmental factor because of growing quantities of ammonia.

Ammonia is harmful to humans, animals and plants. Excessive ammonia can be transformed to nitrate by bacteria, washed out by rain and pollute the water.

To handle this problem the DIL (Deutsches Institut für Lebensmitteltechnik) made experiments to reduce ammonium and TOC Total Organic Carbon by means of cultivating algae, such as Chlorella and bacteria in presence of small amount of glucose.

In these experiments ammonia had been 80% reduced and TOC up to 90%.
The bacteria involved in these experiments were: Because of growing environment pollution the concentration of Farming and industrialization should be a main concern of governments to allow only an organic growth dictating maximum limits of growth.

Great projects can be distributed in different sectors in order to harmonize with nature.


Garlic

[317] The treatment of hyperlipidemia is a significant value in the prevention of diseases of the blood vascular system. As this treatment can take years it may develop intolerability to the drugs used. Garlic powder can be used to avoid these inconvenience.

As it has been found by the Association of German Physicians (Fachverband Deutscher Allgemeinärzte) garlic preparations such as Sapec and Kwai reduces total cholesterol about 9% an triglycerides about 15% after several month of therapy.

Much has been written about the activity of garlic in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. Holzgartner, Schmidt and Kuhn compared garlic preparations with benzafibrate in a study with 98 patients with primary hyperlipoproteinemia with more than 250 mg/dl of cholesterol, and or triglycerides. The daily doses were 900 mg of garlic powder (standardizes as to 1,3 % alliin) and 600 mg of benzafibrate. The study was divided in the following parts: Total cholesterol:The garlic treatment reduced the total cholesterol from 282 mg/dl to 210 mg/dl.
The benzafibrate treatment reduced cholesterol from 287 mg/dl to 208 mg/dl.

HDL-cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol had increased in both groups, in the garlic group from 34,3 mg/dl to 48,6 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 35,5 mg/dl to 51,4 mg/dl.

LDL-cholesterol:LDL-Cholesterol was significantly reduced in both groups, in the garlic group from 195,3 mg/dl to 130,2 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 200,8 mg/dl to 130,0 mg/dl.

Triglycerides:Triglycerides were significantly reduced in both groups, in the garlic group from 306,0 mg/dl to 207,5 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 307,2 mg/dl to 168,6 mg/dl.

Reported garlic smell:The blood lipids decrease with and without resulting garlic body smell is significant only in regard to triglycerides there is a better action when smell is noted.
Hozgartner, Schmidt and Kuhn suggest therefore to adjust the dose from patient to patient so that there is no body smell left. The table below gives the results of the study:

Lipid fraction with smell without smell
Total cholesterol decrease of 83 mg/dl decrease of 58 mg/dl
HDL-cholesterol increase of 18 mg/dl increase of 10 mg/dl
LDL-cholesterol decrease of 77 mg/dl decrease of 51 mg/dl
Triglycerides decrease of 163 mg/dl decrease of 34 mg/dl


Garlic is therefore an ingredient of food used as spice which is proved to have blood lipid reducing action.

Garlic seems to interfere in in the synthesis of cholesterol acting on the HMG-CoA-reductase. Allicin [317]is the active part being originated from Alliin of garlic.

Garlic is also told to have many antioxidants. According to Jean Carper [290] acting antiaging, revs up immune functions, reduces high blood cholesterol, acts as anticoagulant thinning blood, protects aging brains, inhibits cell changes leading to cancer, suppresses free radicals.

Carper advises the intake of half a fresh clove to two or three a day. As supplements 600 to 900 mg of garlic powder per day has heart-protective effects.

About one and a half cloves of garlic block the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines in the stomach.

The activity of garlic depends on the size of the glove and the soil in which it is grown. Garlic grown in selenium rich earth is particularly rich in trace mineral selenium which enhances the antiaging powers.

Carper recommends not to exceed three raw garlic cloves a day. Raw garlic in high dose can be toxic. There is little danger in cooked garlic. Eating more than 20 grams a day of garlic is told to cause gastric bleeding [290].

Antioxidant properties of garlic unveiled

[291]
Garlic is known for its strong aroma taste and its antioxidant properties of allicin to scavenge free radicals. The food researchers Vaidya, Ingold and Pratt, found that allicin has to decompose generating sulfenic acid, which is the link between garlic and its health benefits.

According to the authors, other plants of the same family of garlic, such as onions, leeks and shallots and garlic, also contain compounds similar to allicin, but do not have such strong antioxidant properties due to a slower rate of decomposition of the allicin analogs to the active sulfenic acid.

Biological and chemical stability of allicin differ, suggesting other active compounds

[292]
Toyohiko Ariga and colleagues 2008 assessed the instability of allicin in water, ethanol and vegetable oil. Allicin from crushed fresh garlic is known to have antibacterial activity. The authors determined the stability of allicin, in different solutions, looking at its antibacterial activity toward Escherichia coli. Allicin was found more stable in 20% alcohol than in water, and very unstable in vegetable oil. The authors suggest the existence of bioactive compounds other than allicin on account of the fact that, in the different extracts, the biological half-life of allicin was longer than the chemical one.

Enzyme alliinase increases healthy properties of garlic

[293]
According to Galmarini and colleagues 2007 crushing garlic before cooking can reduce the loss of garlic's healthful properties, such as the in-vitro antiaggregatory activity of human blood platelets. The authors suggest that cooking inactivates the enzyme alliinase which catalyses the formation of allicin (allyl 2-propenylthiosulfinate), which then breaks down to form a variety of healthful organosulfur compound. Crushing or chopping garlic the alliinase can trigger the formation of allicin and its breakdown compounds before being inactivated by heat.

The study of Vaidya 2009 supports Ariga 2008 and Galmarini 2007 which suggest that decomposition products of allicin are the active compounds of the health benefits of garlic.


Selenium

[318] Selenium acts together with garlic. An undersupply of selenium reduces significantly the benefits of garlic. Germany is under supplied with selenium. Fruits, vegetables, and grains growing here are poor in selenium.

Source of selenium Amount of selenium, microg/100g
Bread of German grain 1 to 2
Bread of Canadian grain up to 60


Selenium is toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts of it, forming the active center of certain enzymes, are necessary for the function of all cells in (probably) all living organisms.

In 1996, continuing research showed a positive correlation between selenium supplementation and cancer prevention in humans. Used widely in vitamins and food supplements, in small doses (typically 50 to 200 microg per day for adult humans. Some livestock feeds are fortified as well). [1547]

Cancer prevention properties of selenium: Studies on this matter are Shamberger and Frost (1969) [1548], Burguera (1990), [1554], Clark (1996) [1555], Patterson (1997) [1549], Fleet (1997 [1551], Knekt (1998) [1550], Young (1999) [1552], Schrauzer (2000) [1556], Brooks (2001) [1563], and Akbaraly et al (2005) [1553].

Protection of the immune system: [1557] Melinda A. Beck and colleagues, in a review, found that host nutritional status can influence not only the host response to the pathogen, but can also influence the genetic make-up of the viral genome.

The researchers noted that selenium deficient mice infected with a mild strain of influenza developed severe lung infections. Viral mutations resulted in a more virulent phenotype in the infected mice. This could be linked to the development of emerging new infection diseases such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Bladder cancer prevention properties of selenium: [1558] This case-control study suggests an inverse association between serum selenium concentration and bladder cancer risk.

Impact of selenium on mood: [1561] Margaret Rayman and colleagues in a study, found no evidence that selenium supplementation benefited mood or quality of life in elderly volunteers.

Selenium supplementation reduces oxidative stress of coronary diseases

[1565]
Fausta Natella and colleagues found that a supplementation of 110 micrograms of selenium per day as selenium yeast during 10 days prevented postprandial oxidative stress.

Oxidatively modified LDL activates a series of cellular events in the arterial wall ultimately leading to plaque formation. Dietary lipid hydroperoxides that escape from the gastrointestinal barrier can be incorporated into plasma lipoproteins, leading to a modified form of LDL (LDL minus). Selenium supplementation inhibited after-meal increases in oxidatively modified LDL.

Selenium induced a significant decrease in preprandial plasma glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and inhibited the meal-induced increase in GPx activity. Selenium supplementation fully prevented the meal-induced increase in both LDL minus level and LDL susceptibility to oxidation.

Selenium supplementation also avoided the increase of post-prandial malondialdehyde (MDA), a major end product of lipid oxidation. Prior to supplementation MDA plasma levels had been increased by about 10 per cent.

The European recommended daily intake (RDI) of selenium is 65 micrograms. Following EU levies imposed on wheat imports from the US where the soil is rich in selenium, the intake has fallen from 60 to 34 micrograms per day. Dietary source of selenium is oatmeal, cereals and bread, dependent on the selenium content of the soil where the ingredient grains are cultivated. Soil acidity and selenium complexion with iron or aluminium decrease the amount of selenium available to plants.

High-selenium wheat [1566] Average intake of selenium in the UK has fallen from 60 to 34 micrograms per day changing USA and Canadian wheat import to homegrown and EU wheat grown on low selenium soils. The European recommended daily intake (RDI) is 65 micrograms.

The vast majority of the world's population (including that of Australia, with a probable mean plasma/serum level around 89 microg/l. An intake of 200-300 microg/day selenium is being suggested to significantly reduce cancer risk, and Moyad (2002), suggests that an intake of 200 microg/day Se and around 50 mg/day of vitamin E may be beneficial, particularly for current or previous smoker.

The results of the NPC trial suggest that males may have a higher Se requirement than females. Further studies may find optimum adult Se intakes in the range 125-280 microg/day, with means of around 130 (F) and 250 (M). [1566]

Se deficiency and sub-optimality are manifested in populations as increased rates of thyroid dysfunction, cancer, severe viral diseases, cardiovascular disease, and various inflammatory conditions. The authors call for a supra-nutritional selenium intake to achieve an optimal cancer protection suggesting to increase the selenium content of wheat by biofortification of wheat with selenate.

Before recommending large-scale fortification of the food supply with Se, it will be necessary to await the results of current SELECT and PRECISE intervention studies. [1566]

SELECT: The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial is currently investigating the effect of selenium and vitamin E supplementation on incidence of prostate cancer. [1567]

There are enormous geographical variations in the Se content of soil and food, and hence in Se intakes and concentrations in human blood and tissues.

Thus, it is essential to use local data for monitoring and interpreting Sestatus. The 2000 US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 55 microg/day. The 1987 Australian RDAs are 70 microg/day for women and 85 microg/day for men. [1568]

Combs calls for a regular adult intakes of at least 40 microg/d to support the maximal expression of the selenium enzymes, and perhaps as much as 300 microg/d to reduce risks of cancer.

He writes that low selenium status is likely to contribute to morbidity and mortality due to infectious as well as chronic diseases, and increasing selenium intakes in all parts of the world can be expected to reduce cancer rates. [1564]

Research results continue to illustrate the importance of Se in human health, in particular its anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-viral activities. It is evident, due mainly to its poor availability in many soils, that at least a billion people may be Se-deficient.

Furthermore, the vast majority of the world's population would receive well below the level needed to maximise cancer prevention, which is likely to be within the range of 125-280 microg/adult/day, depending on gender, pregnancy and exposure to oxidative stress. [1564]

Selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) [1559]
In a review article Margaret P. Rayman states that selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) is a common form of Se used to supplement the dietary intake of this important trace mineral.

However, its availability within the European Union is under threat, owing to concerns expressed by the European Community (EC) Scientific Committee on Food that Se-yeast supplements are poorly characterised and could potentially cause the build up of Se in tissues to toxic levels.

The author concludes that Se-yeast from reputable manufacturers is adequately characterised, of reproducible quality, and that there is no evidence of toxicity even at levels far above the EC tolerable upper intake level of 300 microg/d.

Deficiency of Selenium intake in animals [1560]
In most European countries, native Se content in grain and forages is very low. Regular use of such feeds can result in Se deficiency, associated with severe disorders like myodystrophy (white muscle disease), exudative diathesis, impaired functions of liver and pancreas and a concomitant depression of production performance and reproductive ability (more information in Sharma et al., 2005 and Surai, 2002).

Another situation is characterised by a marginal shortage of Se, which usually does not exert apparent clinical signs of Se deficiency, but may cause delayed development of immunocompetence and hence raise susceptibility of animals to infectious diseases.

Therefore, the insufficient native Se contents of feedingstuffs and the severe consequences of deficient Se supply give urge to supplement livestock routinely with extra Se.

Selenosis [1560]
It is well established that both accidental and long-term overdose of Se result in intoxication of farm animals. In general, a single oral intake of Se dose in range of 1-5 mg kg-1 body weight (bw) may already lead to death.

While high blood Se levels up to 25 mg L-1 are typical to acute selenosis, the chronic Se overdose usually results in blood Se concentrations of 1 to 4 mg L-1. It is generally accepted that animal selenosis may appear when dietary Se content exceeds 5 mg kg-1 feed.

The acute Se toxicity is characterised by abnormal posture, unsteady walk, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, increased pulse and respiration rates, hypotension due to vasodilatation, foamy nasal discharge, prostration and typical garlic smelt of breath due to presence of volatile DMSe in expirated air (Gasmi et al., 1997).

The primary targets of acute Se toxicity in animals appear to be the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, central nervous and hematopoietic systems (Raisbeck, 2000).

The signs of chronic selenosis in cattle include deformations, cracking and loosing of hooves, lameness, stiffness of joints, dullness, lack of vitality, emaciation, loss of hair.

Various forms of blind staggers can develop. In sows, the chronic selenosis is accompanied with reduced performance of reproductive system. Hooves of pigs show breaks similar to those in cattle. Other signs include loss of hair, reddened skin and neurological symptoms. The immune system may be also impaired (Raisbeck, 2000).

In poultry, the intake of feeds containing Se above 5 mg kg-1 results in lower hatchability of eggs due to deformities of embryos. Mature birds seem to tolerate more Se than do pigs or cattle and do not exhibit signs of poisoning other than poor hatchability of their eggs.

Experimental Se intoxication in growing chickens led to severe diarrhoea, dyspnoea and somnolence of birds (Salyi et al., 1993).

Production of selenium enriched yeast [1562]
Selenium enriched yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397) is the product of industrial fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 in selenium enriched media. The aerobic fermentation takes place in a medium containing beet or cane molasses, nutritional salts, vitamins and a food grade selenium source leads to the final product.

Live yeast cells absorbs selenium and biochemically transforms it into L (+) selenomethionine and other seleno-related compounds.

The inactivated and dried selenium enriched yeast is subsequently blended with non viable dehydrated yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to standardize the final selenium content. The end product becomes inactivated whole cell yeast containing a minimum of 2000 ppm of total selenium and a maximum of 2% of residual inorganic selenium. At least 60% of the total organic selenium is in the form of selenomethionine (SeMet).

Bibliographic data show that organic selenium as selenium enriched yeast is comparable if not better than inorganic selenium in providing for a higher blood and milk selenium concentration and GSH-px activity.

The beneficial effects obtained with selenium enriched yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 compared with inorganic selenium as feed additive are the following: These trials show that selenium enriched yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 can be used as an alternative to inorganic selenium (like sodium selenite (Na$_{2}$SeO$_{3}$) and sodium selenate (Na$_{2}$SeO$_{4}$) at a maximum content of selenium in the complete feedingstuff of 0.5 ppm (Directive 70/524/EC)) currently authorised without time-limit.

FDA approved the use of selenium enriched yeast in animal nutrition from September 3, 2003 as a source of selenium for beef and dairy cattle (with previous approval given in 17 July 2002 for use in feed for swine, turkeys, and chickens). The product included a maximum of 2% of inorganic selenium.

In Canada, selenium enriched yeast (Saccharaomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397) is registered and approved for use in animal nutrition from March 2004 by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA ).

Selenium enriched yeast and drip loss of meat [1560]
Less drip loss of meat (poultry, pigs): A significant reduction of drip loss by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast was seen in broiler study 2, whereas selenite was significantly less effective than Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast.

In broiler study 3 Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast did not influence drip loss in comparison to the unsupplemented control group.

Expressible moisture in muscle was significantly increased by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast in broiler study 4. In broiler study 5 the drip loss was significantly influenced by Se level and Se source (Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast and selenite), Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast being more effective than selenite. But there was no unsupplemented control group. Pig studies 4 and 5 did not show any significant effect of Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast on drip loss.

Conclusion: A reduction of drip loss by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast could only be shown in two broiler studies; in both studies selenite was less effective. In a broiler study as in the two pig experiments Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast did not exert any influence on drip loss.

The FEEDAP Panelcon cludes that the effects observed are not consistently demonstrated and, if so, the effect is likely due to Se itself and not to the Se source.

Selenium position statement of Australian Cancer Council [1569]
The Cancer Council Australia in a position statement on selenium supports the National Health and Medical Research Council recommended dietary intake of 65 microg/day for men and 55 microg/day for women with an upper intake limit of 400 microg/day.

Some studies suggest that selenium may be inversely associated with prostate cancer and colorectal cancer. The evidence of a protective role of selenium in other types of cancers is weak and inconsistent.

The Cancer Council Australia does not support the use of health claims on food labels that suggest selenium protects against the development of cancer.

Elevated serum selenium is associated with elevated serum lipids

[1570]
Selenium, known for its antioxidant properties may, however, affect several cardiometabolic risk factors, such as glucose homeostasis and lipid concentrations.

Joachim Bleys and colleagues 2008 examined the relation of serum selenium concentrations with serum lipids. They found that elevated serum selenium was associated with elevated serum concentrations of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triacylglycerols, apo B, and apo A-I among US adults, a population with high selenium intake. The authors call for more experimental studies to determine cause and effect of the relations of elevated serum selenium and serum lipids.

Seafood

Hake
The term hake refers to fish in either of: An old European source mentions a hake that was transplanted from the coast of Ireland to Cape Cod. [1571] Tuna
Albacore is harvested by US vessels trolling with artificial lures on or near the surface and with pole and line. These same vessels use bait to attract albacore wherein they are hooked with a jigging pole off the stern and landed individually. Barbless hooks are used in this fishery. The absences of nets ensures the fishery is "dolphin free". [1572]

Pacific albacore, Long finned albacore (Thunnus alalunga)
Black fin tuna (Thunnus atlanticus)
Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus)
Bluefin tuna, Atlantic tuna, Californian bluefin, horse mackerel (Thunnus thynnus)

Others:
Monkfish, anglerfish (Lophius piscatorius) It is a bone fish.

Common sole, black sole, Dover sole (Solea vulgaris vulgaris)
Sprat(Sprattus sprattus)
Brown shrimp, common shrimp (Crangon crangon)
Black tiger (Panaeus monodon)
Deep-sea prawn (Pandalus borealis)
Dublin Bay prawn, langoustine, Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus)
Squid, cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)
Whale, cetacean (Cetacea spec.)


Salmon

[1573] There are different grades of fat content. The low fat grade is being sold in Europe. The medium fat grade is used to produce smoked salmon and the grade of high fat content is sold in Asia. Since 1995 there is also the Omega-3-salmon available.

Greatest producers of salmon are Canada and Norway. There is a great variety on market, depending on their origin: Atlantic salmon, graved salmon from Sweden, Irish salmon. The variety of Norwegian salmon is Salmo salar. More than one fourth of the Norwegian salmon is bred in cages in the fjords. This form of concentrated fish farming represents an environment problem.

In order to avoid disease, boils, bacteria and moulds pesticides are used. To avoid fish louse the pesticide ivermictin is used. Virotic infections are under control with vaccination by means of feed. Ivermectin kill not only the fish louse but also the worms living in the sediments of the bottom of the Water and which is an important feed source free living fish.

Overfeed and enormous amounts of excrements trigger the development of bacteria of putrefaction and toxic algae One of the best known fish in the history of fishery was codfish (Gadus spec.).

Codfish had been an important basic nutrient. It was preserved through drying or salting.

Salmon an trout is endangered by a multi-host parasite

[1450]
The infectious pathogen, a rosette-like intracellular parasite Sphaerothecum destruens carried by invasive cyprinids threatens Stocks of Atlantic salmon along with varieties of domestic brown trout.

In 2005 Dr. Gozlan warned that the parasite poses a severe threat to some freshwater fish species in Europe. The parasite causes high morbidity and mortality in North American salmonid species including Atlantic salmon, brown and rainbow trout. [1451]

According to DNA findings conducted by the authors, the European strain of the parasite was found to present a degree of isolation toward the North American agent. It is found on healthy invasive fishes which spread the agent to sympatric populations of native fishes. Freshwater fish such as bream, carp and roach are endangered by the parasite.

The authors call to develop more sensitive detection tools of the rosette agent to counter future outbreaks which may pose a risk for fisheries and commercial aquaculture. Movement of fish for stocking purposes may further facilitate its spread. The decrease of the number of the sunbleak (Leucaspius delineatus) in parts of Europe is to be associated with the spread of a healthy carrier, the Asian topmouth gudgeon.

Codfish and the church in the Middle Ages:

Dried and salted codfish is today still being consumed in large scale due to the activity of the Roman Catholic church. In the Middle Ages the Church imposed their believers days of fasting. Sexual act and meat was forbidden, however no restriction on "cold food" was known. Fish and whale living in cold water were therefore allowed.

Whale was eaten on "slender days", on all Friday because this was the day in which Jesus was cruzified, the forty days of fasting and a couple of holy days leaving almost no days for the consumption of meat. Basques as leading nation on codfish at that time became wealthy.

Codfish became a religious cult object as a symbol of religious life. That is the reason why in many Catholic countries dried salty codfish is being traditionally eaten on Good Friday.

Codfish as basic nutrient

Codfish had been an important source of proteins for the islands of the Caribbean Sea. A supply shortfall of salty codfish due to rotten political relationship between United States and England caused th death of starvation of 15.000 slaves in Jamaica during 1780 and 1785.

With the industrial revolution a growing market for bottom dwelling fish arose in Great Britain. Codfish, haddock, plaice and later fish and chips developed as important food for workers in town and is today still a traditional food consisting of fried fish nuggets and French fries.

In the 18th Century cod liver oil was used in Great Britain to cure rheumatism. In the 19th Century fish liver oil was used in case of tuberculosis, malnutrition and other diseases related with poverty.

During the second world war liver oil was given to pregnant women, children under 5 years f age and persons over 40 as malnutrition was feared by the Ministry of Nutrition.Fish liver oil is not being used today because of its taste.

History of codfish fishery

The Vikings were the first population strongly united to codfish fishery. Their boats sailed from Norway to Iceland, Greenland and the coast of Canada following shoals of Atlantic codfish (Gadhus morhua) which they salted preserving it. Due to its very low concentration of fat and its white flesh is codfish the best raw product for salty and dried fish.

Between 985 and 1011 the Viking Thorwald and his son Erik the Red sailing from Norway settled in Island, Greenland and the coast of Canada leaving places to dry the codfish.

Later on Basques specialized on codfish, sailing as far as the banks of North America where the cold water of Greenland meet the Gulf Stream. In these regions the water was extremely rich on codfish.

For long time the Basques could hide the secret of their fishing grounds and became wealthy feeding the whole Mediterranean region with Atlantic salty codfish. Miguel de Cervantes cites codfish in Don Qixote (1605-1616) being called as pollack in Castila and salt codfish in Andalusia.

As the Basques disposed of plenty of salt their codfish was very stable. That is why the Basques could make longer journeys as the Vikings.

John Cabots in 1497 discovered the secret fishing grounds of the Basques on his first voyage to America. A second trip was of no return. No one knows what happened.

The resulting competition between nations fighting for the fishing grounds and later on the introduction of the steam boats with ground nets nearly exterminated the codfish.

The second world war a time to recover for codfish in the North Atlantic because of the intensive war activity. As soon as war was over big trawlers started fishery on large scale.

In 1822 a treaty between France, Germany, Netherlands, Denmark and Great Britain in Den Haag established for the first time a tree miles of territorial waters valid for the North Sea.

A treaty between England and Denmark in 1901 declared the sea around Island as international water with the exclusion of a three mile zone . Island was at that time a colony of Denmark and was to weak to make any opposition to that treaty.

As reaction to intruders Island started a well organized coast gard to counter German and British trawlers which entered the three miles zone. A further effort to protect marine species was a close cooperation with the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (IREM) which controls the size of the fish population of endangered species.
The British trawlers installed in the beginning of 1928 radio transmitters to warn their colleague with the message "Grandmother is not feeling good" whenever a coast gard boat had left the harbor.

In 1944 Island became independent from Denmark and could now extend the territorial waters to four miles.

In 1945 The USA under President Harry Truman proclaimed the claims at the mineral raw materials of the continental shelf in order to protect oil reserves.
In addition these claims were also risen by all other Latin American countries giving support to the international recognition of territorial waters.

The first codfish war
As the population of haddock and codfish decreased Island extended in 1958 their territorial waters to 12 miles. This started a real Codfish War between England and Island. Finally in February 1961 Great Britain recognized the twelve miles waters.

The second codfish war
In 1971 Island announced the extention of their waters up to 50 miles. The second codfish war began. The Island coast gard used to cut off the nets oh the trawlers.

Fish was the only wealth of Island which remained therefore unchanged in its position. Because of the intervention of the NATO Great Britain was forced to recognize the 50 miles zone.

The third codfish war The population of codfish still decreased despite the 50 miles. Eighteen years old cod fish got extremely rare. Only fifteen years old specimens were caught. Island announced therefore beginning with the 15. October 1975 the extention of their territorial waters to two hundred miles. It came to 53 ship collision.

In February 1976 the European Community proclaimed the 200 miles territorial waters ending thus the third codfish war. Spain and Portugal were deeply affected by the 200 miles regulation because their waters do not bear good fishes. Nevertheless the population of codfish decreased and many regulations were issued.

In 1992 fishing of codfish in North Atlantic was forbidden. A recovery of the population will take about 15 years.

The European Union is going to reduce the catch quota of codfish in the Kattegat about 58%, haddock in the Irish Sea about 52% and sole in the North Sea about 25%.

According to the commissioner of the EU Franz Fischler at 6.12.01 the situation is alarming and everything should be undertaken to avoid a complete extermination of some species due to overfishing. From the number of ground fishes in EU fishing waters in the 70th only 10% are left in the late 2001. [1452]

EU fish quota causes 40%-60% of fish being dumped

[1453]
European Union quotas strictly limit the amount of fish that vessels can bring back to port. Quota exceeding catch is being dumped. most of it dead. Fisher boats in the North Sea, catching a species or size of fish which is above their quota and have to throw it back, however less than 1 percent survives.

The EU estimates that between 40% and 60% of fish caught by trawlers in this area is dumped back into the sea. According to Green Peace 186 million fish caught in UK waters in 2006, 117 million of them were thrown away dead as waste.

According to Enever, Revill and Grant 2007, discards in the English Channel, Western Approaches, Celtic and Irish Seas are about 63% by number and 35% by weight of all fish caught. [1454]

World Wildlife Fund's Helen McLachla calls for selective gear to avoid unwanted catch. Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) looks after such selective gears, analysing results of the Rhode Island design as a cod-conservation tool allowing to fish for haddock and not harming cod. [1455]

US Navy may continue sonar training at California harmes marine animals

[]
US Navy sonar training goes on, despite harming marine mammals. Environmental groups, such as the Natural Resources Defense Council n (NRDC), brought a lawsuit against the US navy, alleging that military sonar harms or even kill 37 species of marine mammals, such as sea lions and blue whales, disturbing their ability to navigate and communicate. Sonar has been linked to substantial and irreparable harm to marine mammals, like mass strandings and hemorrhaging around the brain and ears, and symptoms akin to a severe case of "the bends", the illness that can kill scuba divers who surface quickly from deep water, indicating that sonar alters their dive patterns.

NRDC is working nationally and internationally to establish strict regulations on sonar use so that whales and other marine mammals don't have to die for practice.

The lawsuit involved 14 training exercises off the California coast that began in February 2007 and ends in January 2009.

According to Chief Justice John Roberts, who prepared the judgement, the overall public interest favoured the Navy, which needs realistic training with active sonar to respond to the threat posed by enemy submarines. This  outweighs environment interests. President George W. Bush interfered in the judicial process citing the national security necessity of the training and exempting the Navy from the environmental laws.


The military sonar and whale mortality

[1457]
The NRDC reports that the military employs two types of active sonar: mid-frequency and low-frequency. Low-frequency sonar travels enormous distances in seawater. During testing off the California coast, noise from SURTASS LFA, the Navy's main low-frequency system, was detected across the breadth of the North Pacific. By the Navy's own estimates, even 300 miles from the source these sonic waves can retain an intensity of 140 decibels. This is a hundred times more intense than the level known to alter the behavior of large whales. Mid-frequency sonar is more widely used and has been associated with mortalities of whales.

Anisakiasis

Anisakis is a nematode (hairworm) which attack fish and live in their body.Anisakis simplex is common in the Seas of the North. The worm is being found in many fishes such as herring, codfish, mackerel, pollack and sprat.

Anisakis can live only in sea water. The worm is uncoloured almost transparent. It resists to 1% sulphuric acid for a period of 6 Days. Deep-freezing at -30$^{o}C$ kills immediately th worm. Frozen food is therefor safe of Anisaki.

Life cyclus of Anisakis

The parasite must go through hosts to complete its life cyclus.
The male expelles eggs of 0,02 mm diameters.Larvas of 0,25 mm come out of the eggs after some days. To survive the larvas have to find a host in the next weeks.
The first host: As first host the Anisakis invades small crabs such as Copepoda and Euphausiacea where the first sloughing 4 to 6 mm takes place.

Infection of fish: A fish is infected by ingesting the first host in form of small crabs. The larva of Anisakis remains unchanged in a capsule in the stomach and intestines of the fish. About 0,7% of the larva get into the muscles of the belly piece.

Liver hard fish roe and other organs are seldom infected by the larva. However as the fish dies the larva abandons its capsule and migrates to the muscles. The fish should therefore opened and the innards schould be taken out as soon as possible to avoid migration of the Anisaki larva to the muscles.

Sometimes when the sea is ruff and the tripulation is seasick work is not done and the fish is left unprocessed waiting for better weather. In this case Anisakis larvae migrate to the muscles, being an unpleasent finding later on when it is consumed.

Sexual maturity:The Anisakis larva can only achieve sexual maturity in a mammal host such as whale, delphin or seal.

Functional Food

The evolution of the final target of nutrition

The final target of nutrition moved between survival, through hunger satisfaction, food safety with deep concern of the consumer and recently a new wave of foods to promote health and healthy living.New concepts like Functional Food,Nutraceuticals , Fortified Foods, Dietary Supplements are created by the industry trying to open new market segments[623].

This has created a great confusion among the consumer resulting in runs after melatonin, abuse of vitamins and sometimes a loss of confidence to retailed foods. Functional Food is not yet well defined. It is intended to close the gap between food and drugs.

Scientific evidence supports the hypothesis that, by modulating specific target functions in the body, diet can have beneficial physiological and psychological effects that go beyond the widely accepted nutritional effects.

Nutritive and nonnutrition components in food have the potential to modulate target functions in the body which are relevant to well-being and health and/or reduction of disease risk [623].


Regulation of functional food:

Functional food is not yet regulated by food legislations.The idea behind Functional Food is to make food suited to avoid undernourishment with some special ingredients or to prevent against diseases such as cancer or heart attack.

The main concern of industry and retailers is to find new ways to increase their turnovers. This is why functional food is being on number one in sales promotions.

It should always be kept in mind that normal nutrition is the best guarantee for health. Eat more fruits and vegetables and you get enough fibres and plant sterols.Eat more dairy products and you have no trouble with undersupply of calcium, eat fish and less beef and you get enough iodine.

Functional foods addresses always certain groups of persons which have specific problems as they cover only one or best of all few specific dietary needs. They cannot substitute natural healthy foods.

Definition of functional food:

Functional food is currently defined as food of the normal daily intake enriched with substances or organism which have health supporting activity.

They do not help in case of acute diseases, they act on long terms against health risks such coronary diseases or cancer. Sometimes it is unknown at what dose the protective activity takes place, and sometimes the concentration of the active substance in food is not known[527]

FOSHU: Functional Foods in Japan
In the seventies there were Japanese researches on food which discovered special activities of some components. These substances were later on used in pharmacology. That is how functional food had its origin. In Japan three functions of food were reported.:

1- Nutritional value: The primary function is to help the body to keep alive.
2- Taste: The secondary function of food is to satisfy the feeling of taste and smell
3- Activity on the physiological system: The third function of food is to strengthen and modulate the physiological system. This activity is to be claimed as functional food.

In Japan functional foods are grouped under FOSHU (Foods for Special Dietary Uses).
The products with functional claims must be authorized by the Japanese food administration. There are only few products which are FOSHU authorized.

A great variety of foods with functional claims are not authorized as the produce say that costs to make necessary tests are to expensive, the time it takes to make these test is to long and therefore unfriendly to innovations, the higher concentration of the functional ingredient increases the price and alters the taste.

Health claims are scientific and not understandable for an average consumer. Therefore not authorized functional foods are tolerated by Japanese authorities.

The development of functional foods must be considered critically as it misleads the consumer. A broad activity of commercials takes the consumer to by a specific food in the hope to be fed all round with all other components he can only get with a well-balanced nutrition.

Foods with Health Claims Foods for Specified Health Uses in Japan
Foods with Health Claims Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) and Foods with Nutrient Function Claims have been regulated by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare since 2001, updated in 2005.

FOSHU foods are the only type of foods that can carry some kind of a health claim in Japan. They have only a small market because of high costs for their approval which includes human clinical trials. Therefore functional foods and dietary supplements are marketed without labelled health claims.

This situation has created two functional foods categories: One is unregulated functional foods, that is; conventional food and beverages fortified with health ingredient to promote both general and specific health conditions without label health claims. [528]


Ingredient Healt claim status
Alpha lipoic acid (ALA)   Health food
CoQ10   Health food
Collage   Health food
Ceramide   health food
Pracenta   Health food
Hyaluronic acid   Health food
Isoflavones   Health food
Carnitine   Health food
Essential fatty acids (EPA, DHA, DPA)   Health food
Tocotorienol   Health food
Astaxanthin   Health food
Creatine   Health food
Green tea drink Kirin, seasonal allergy Healt Food
     
Soymilk Kibu soy peptide, Health food
  energy boost  
     
Plant lactic acid drink Kagome lactic acid bacteria, Health food
  gastrointestinal health  
     
Pucera cookies Olio linolenic acid, Health food
Ingredient Healt claim status


The other is regulated functional foods, known as FOSHU (Foods for Specific Health Uses). FOSHU is the government approved foods that carries specific health claims on product labels, ranging from gastrointestinal health to lowering cholesterol.


Healt claim Ingredient status
Gastrointestinal health    
  Oligosaccharides / Prebiotics FOSHU
  Dietary fiber FOSHU
  Lactic acid bacteria, probiotics  
Lower cholesterol    
  Soy protein/ soy globulin FOSHU
  Soy phospholipds (CSPHP) FOSHU
  Low molecule alginic acid FOSHU
  Plant sterol/stanol esters FOSHU
Lower hipertension    
  Gama-aminobutiric acid GABA FOSHU
  Vinegar acid FOSHU
  Lactololi-peptide  
  Eucommia leaf glycoside FOSHU
  Wakame peptide, Undarine pinnatifida FOSHU
  Marine peptide, sardine peptide  
Lower blood glucose    
  Wheat albumin FOSHU
  Guava Polyphenoles FOSHU
  Indigestible dextrin FOSHU
Lower serum triglycerides    
  Diacylglycerol FOSHU
  Plant sterol FOSHU
  Medium chain fatty acid FOSHU
  Globin protein enzyme disintegrated FOSHU
  Green tea catechin FOSHU
  EPA and DHA acid FOSHU
Better mineral absorption    
  Calcium,citric acid, malic acid (CCM) FOSHU
  Casein phospho peptide (CPP) FOSHU
  Heme-iron FOSHU
Improve dental health    
  Xylitol,phosphate-hydro calcium, funoran FOSHU
  Phospho acid olygosaccharides calcium FOSHU
  Recaldent (CPP-ACP) FOSHU
Improve bone health    
  Soy isoflavones FOSHU
  Fructo Oligosccharides FOSHU
  Vitamin K2 FOSHU
  Milk Basic Protein MBP
Healt claim Ingredient status



Probiotics

[]
According to FAO/WHO Guidelines for the evaluation of probiotics in food 2002 probiotics are live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host.

Probiotic health claims are often confusing and controversial

[529]
Morrow and Kollef 2008 state that probiotics are not marketed as pharmaceuticals and no rigorous scientific documentation of their efficacy are needed for placing them on market. Many probiotic health-claims are based on confusing and controversial studies. The authors write that new understanding of the mechanisms of action of probiotics may lead to a more logical framework of future trials.

Controversity about probiotic drink Actimel from Danone

[530]

The marketing of Actimel

[531]
According to Spiegel Online Danone spent 50 Million Euro from January to October 2008 as marketing budget for Actimel in Germany counting for a volume of sales of about one Billion Euro worldwide per year. Actimel helps to strengthen the body's defence mechanisms, exceeded €1 billion in sales.

Flourishing global market of probiotics

[532]
Khan and Ansari in a monograph of 2007 stresses the growing interest in self-care and the recognition of the link between diet and health of the consumer, providing a flourishing market for functional foods and probiotic products which represent a wealth of marketing opportunities. The authors provide a summary of research on the health benefits of probiotics and information regarding the global market of probiotics.

Functional foods with unclear benefits suffer the impact of financial crisis

[533]
According to UK Financial Times the so-called "functional foods" movement with exotic products such as flavour and vitamin enhanced waters may be severely hit by the financial crisis leaving less money to be spent by the consumer.

Nutritional cosmetics

[534]
A yoghurt with ingredients like borage oil, vitamin E and green tea antioxidants It is supposed to "nourish" the skin, while claiming that it "nourish your skin from within" entering the field of nutritional cosmetics. Experts say that beauty brands are out of place at the food department of a supermarket. A pharmacy distribution suits better for products with undefined claims.

Confusing range of fruit drinks, with and without milk

[535]
Special marketing pressure is exerted on drinks for children. A confusing constellation of claims like GM free, no preservatives added no whole soy milk, but soy protein isolate is used to avoid bitter taste, vitamins and calcium are added.

Fruit flavoured waters and ice cream drinking yoghurts and even chewing gum with special health claims are being marketed by global food companies.

Other drinks call on the negative calorie effect (thermogenesis) of epigallocatechin gallate EGCG found in green tea extract which is supposed to speed up the metabolism and increase energy expenditure when taken together with caffeine. These drinks burn 60 to 100 calories, says the producer.

A cup of green tea and a cup of coffee during the day have the same effect heralded by the producer of sophisticated drinks. [536] [537]

Mass market brands:

The consumer is forced to look after packaged staple foods at fair price, which are found in the mass production segment with benefits located at daily needs. Non-essential products such as bottled water, drinking yoghurts and chewing gum are good items to spare money.

Health benefits labelling in Canada, E.U., and U.S. Emphasise on scientific credibility

[538]
Sanders and colleagues 2005 stress that successful and responsible global introduction of probiotic and prebiotic products requires labelling for health benefits that meets consumer needs, adheres to regulatory standards and does not overextend scientific evidence. They also note that existing regulations emphasis on scientific credibility of health claims. The authors also analyse the value of different types of evidence of efficacy and examine the imitations of in vitro, animal and human studies used for efficacy substantiation for probiotics and prebiotics.

Health claims in the United States may be misleading to consumer

[3] [540]
Hasler 2008 Health claims in the United States have been a topic of intense controversy since the mid-1980s. Health claims are based on a very high standard of scientific evidence and significant scientific agreement. Hasler says that US health claims regulations had limited success and may be misleading to consumers.

Premarket authorization and substantiation of health claims on foods

[541]
L'abbé and colleagues 2008 analyse the regulatory framework of health claims on foods in Canada and compare it with international approaches, and how risk-reduction claims for serious diseases are managed in the United States, European Union and Australia, stressing the need for premarket authorization and the requirement for a high level of certainty in substantiating claims.

Health claims in Europe: new legislation and PASSCLAIM for substantiation

[542]
The EU regulation on nutrition and health claims from 2007 will be fully implemented by January 2010. It includes reduction of disease risk claims. A community list of permitted and rejected claims will be defined. To achieve this, the European Commission supported the project, "Process for the Assessment of Scientific Support for Claims on Foods" (PASSCLAIM), with the main purpose to define a set of generally applicable criteria for the scientific substantiation of health claims on foods.

Foodwatch says there is no difference of the effect of Actimel compared with normal yoghurt

[543] [530]
Foodwatch says that Danone makes a mountain out of a molehill suggesting that Actinimel protects from cold and boots health. Foodwatch believes that the company sells a common product using excessive advertising. [543]

Alexa Meyer, from the Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria, comparing probiotic drinks and normal yoghurt, found no significant difference in the effect of Actimel and normal yoghurt with living bacteria. The nutritional researcher recommends to get enough sleep, wash hands often and eat a daily bowl of yoghurt. She says this would activate more active germ-fighting white blood cells,enhancing the immune system, probably due to the presence of Lactobacillus bulgarius, from any normal yoghurt, which has half the price of Actimel. [545]

This is being supported by Bethold Koletzko from the University of Munich, Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Munich, Germany in case of diarrhoea advices parents to give their children yoghurt with living bacteria. It does not necessarily be Actinimel, but may also be other yoghurts.

The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) is an independent regulator for advertisements, sales promotion and direct marketing in the UK. According to Spiegel Online one TV spot from Actimel was blocked by the ASA in 2006 and one in 2008. [530]

However, a measurable health benefits linked to the presence of live Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. Bulgaricus was reported by Koletzko and colleagues 2005 yoghurt. In this review Koletzko and colleagues say that it was clearly demonstrated that yoghurt containing viable bacteria improves lactose digestion and eliminates symptoms of lactose intolerance, and clearly fulfil the current concept of probiotics. [546]

Scientific evidences of probiotic healt effects

[547]
Despite controversies, there are many published research articles which say probiotics have positive health effects. Here some of them are presented:

Probiotics found to be beneficial for health

[547]
Parvez and colleagues 2006 state, in a review of probiotics that the beneficial effect of lactic acid bacteria consumption include improved intestinal tract health; enhanced immune system, synthesis and enhanced bioavailability of nutrients; reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance, reduced allergy in susceptible individuals; and reduction of risk of certain cancers. Modified gut pH, production of antimicrobial compounds, interfering with the binding and receptor sites of pathogens, stimulating immunomodulatory cells, and producing lactase are some of the mechanisms how it works.
The authors concluded that probiotics are important as a part of a healthy diet for human and may become a safe, cost effective, approach against microbial infection.

German review of probiotic studies

[548]
According de Vrese and Schrezenmeir 2008 the probiotics are defined in Gernay as viable microorganisms, sufficient amounts of which reach the intestine in an active state and thus exert positive health effects. Such bacteria are Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, L. reuteri, bifidobacteria and certain strains of L. casei or the L. acidophilus-group, Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917, certain enterococci (Enterococcus faecium SF68) and the probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii. Health benefits are the (transient) modulation of the intestinal microflora of the host and the capacity to interact with the immune system directly or mediated by the autochthonous microflora, are basic mechanisms.

The authors list well-established probiotic effects: Help to cure rotavirus infections or antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Reduce the cancer-promoting enzymes and putrefactive metabolites in the gut. Prevent unspecific intestinal complaints in healthy people. Produce beneficial effects on inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, such as Helicobacter pylori infection. Normalize stool and stool consistency in subjects suffering from obstipation or an irritable colon. Prevent or alleviate allergies and atopic diseases in infants. Prevent respiratory tract infections (common cold, influenza) and other infectious diseases as well as treatment of urogenital infections.

Probiotics and dietetics practice

[549]
Douglas and Sanders in a review of 2008 cite enhanced immune function, improved colonic integrity, decreased incidence and duration of intestinal infections, down-regulated allergic response, and improved digestion as benefits of regular consumption of probiotics.

The authors stress that Information on probiotic species, applications for specific strains, dosages and forms, safety, and shelf life is not sufficiently worked out to be used by most food and nutrition professionals. The authors present science and practice-based guidelines to enhance clinician and client understanding of probiotics and prebiotics.

Lactobacillus casei reduce the incindence of diarrhoea compared with traditional yoghurt

[551]
Pedone and colleagues 2000 found that supplementation of healthy children with milk fermented by yoghurt cultures and Lactobacillus casei strain DN-114 001reduces incidence of acute diarrhoea compared with traditional yoghurt. The authors underline the additional benefit of L. casei in acute diarrhoea in children compared with standard yoghurt.

Lactobacillus casei DN-114 001 protects rats from rotavirus

[4]
Guérin-Danan and colleagues 2001 found that food supplementation with milk fermented by Lactobacillus casei DN-114 001 protects suckling rats from Group A rotavirus diarrhoea, which is the leading cause of diarrhoea among children aged 3-36 mo worldwide. The authors infected rats with SA11 rotavirus at d 5 (RF group). The suckling rats which had been early supplemented with fermented milk by the DN-114 001 presented decreased clinical signs of diarrhoea, rotavirus infection prevention, and reduction of histologic lesions of the small intestine, leaving the number of mucin cells unchanged.

Fermented milk effect in young children in transition countries

[553]
Branca and Rossi 2002, comparing the effects of a traditional yogurt, and a yoghurt with Lactobacillus casei. found that fermented dairy products change the equilibrium and metabolism of the intestinal microflora and may have beneficial effects to humans. The authors report that the number of enterococci in faecal samples increased with traditional yoghurt, and the markers of proteolytic fermentation, represented by branched-chain and long-chain fatty acids, decreased. Ingestion of milk fermented with yoghurt bacteria and Lactobacillus casei the lactobacilli count in faeces increased, and harmful enzyme activity of beta-glucuronidase and beta-glucosidase decreased, this effect being most accentuated in infants where these enzymes were initially unusually high.

Probiotics in treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea

[554]
Kligler and Cohrssen 2008 point out that probiotics may prevent and treat antibiotic-associated diarrhea and acute infectious diarrhea, be useful in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome, and atopic dermatitis in children. Bacteria often used as probiotics are Lactobacillus sp., Bifidobacterium sp., Streptococcus thermophilus, and Saccharomyces boulardii, in a dosages range from 5 to 10 billion living bacteria per day for children, and from 10 to 20 billion for adults. Probiotics taken orally should be resistant to acid and bile so that it can pass through the upper gastrointestinal tract and must be taken regularly to maintain colonization, otherwise they will be gone after 1 to 2 weeks.

Probiotics role in the health of children

[555]
Kligler, Hanaway and Cohrssen 2007 stress that Probiotics are useful to reduce the risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and the duration of acute infectious diarrhea, are effective in preventing community-acquired diarrheal infections, reduce the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants. Help in the prevention and treatment of atopic dermatitis were noted. The authors hypothesize that the exact strain used is less important, important is the administration of a high dosis of living bacteria , typically 5 to 10 billion per day or higher.

A probiotic effect is strictly restricted to one defined strain

[550]
Seksik and colleagues 2008 reviewed the literature related to the use of probiotics ion the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The authors concluded that a probiotic effect is strictly restricted to one defined strain and cannot be generalized from one to another. According to Seksik and colleagues, some probiotic drugs are useful in pouchitis (VSL3), and in the prevention of recurrence of ulcerative colitis (Escherichia coli Nissle 1917), however, efficacy of probiotic drugs in Crohn's disease and dietary ecological treatments is still low.

Immunologic effects of probiotics:

Deshpande, Rao and Patole 2007 reported in a review that the risk of necrotising enterocolitis, one of the most common gastrointestinal problems in premature babies, may be cut by 74 per cent by probiotic supplementation. [556]

Carlo Caffarelli and Sergio Bernasconi stressed that more research is needed, because each bacterial strain used as probiotics is believed to have specific immunomodulatory properties. Different probiotics, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, L casei GG, L bulgaricus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, B breve, B infants, B lactis, Streptococcus thermophilus, and Saccharomyces boulardii. Present different imunologic effects and cannot be generalised. [557]

Amanda Cox and colleagues 2007 studied the Lactobacillus fermentum VRI 003 (PCC)strain on its effect to boost the immune health of high performance athletes such as long distance runners. The authors found that the bacterium boosted T cells and activated the immune system, reducing the number of days and severity of respiratory illness of these athletes. [558]

Antiallergic effect of probiotics:

Kamal Ivory and colleagues 2008 studied the antiallergic effect of Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS). The authors found that the bacterium modulated the immune response to grass pollen, and helped hay fever sufferers. [559]

Tamura and colleagues 2006 studied the antiallergic effect of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) in fermented milk on patients allergic to Japanese cedar pollen. The authors found that Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) did not prevent Nasal and ocular allergic symptoms, but may delay the occurrence of allergic symptoms. [560]

Xiao and colleagues 2006 studied the antiallergic effects of another bacterium, the Bifidobacterium longum BB536 in the treatment of Japanese cedar pollinosis. The authors found a significant decreases in rhinorrhea and nasal blockage in patients receiving the BB536 strain which was caused probably through the modulation of Th2-skewed immune response. [561]

Other effects of probiotics:

Bekkali and colleagues 2008 studied the effect of a probiotic mixture on children aged 4–16 years with constipation. The probiotic mixture (Ecologic Relief) containing Bifidobacteria (B.) bifidum, B. infantis, B. longum, Lactobacilli (L.) casei, L. plantarum and L. rhamnosus was used. The authors found that a mixture of probiotics, has positive effects on symptoms of constipation and call for more studies on this matter. [562]

Hickson and colleagues 2007 found that L casei, L bulgaricus, and S thermophilus can reduce the incidence of antibiotic associated diarrhoea and C difficile associated diarrhoea. The authors recommend such mixture for elderly patients [563]. These findings are, however being challenged by Wilcox and Sandoe. They are concerned about the conclusion of Hickson that a probiotic yoghurt drink, given during and after antibiotic treatment, has the potential to decrease morbidity, healthcare costs, and mortality if used routinely in patients aged over 50. Wilcox and Sandoe say that the data are not widely applicable. [564]

Probiotics and allergy in Japan
Kirin Group discovered Lactobacillus KW (Lactobacillus paracasei), a lactic acid bacteria which can reduce severness of symptoms of allergies such as hay fever added to foods. The Japanese Society of Allergology researchers found that this strain improved the Th1/Th2 balance.

The results of Wang et al. suggest that the ingestion of LP-33-fortified fermented milk for 30 days can effectively and safely improve the quality of life of patients with allergic rhinitis. [565]

NLEA: Nutrition Labeling and Education Act 1990. Functional Foods in USA
The NLEA act of the FDA contains the definition of model claims for functional foods:


Nutrient-relation to disease Model claim
   
Fat and heart disease Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol
  may reduce the risk of heart disease
Calcium and Osteosporosis Regular exercise and a healthy diet with
  enough calcium helps teen and young
  adult white and Asian women maintain
  good bone health and may reduce
  their high risk of osteosporosis
Sodium and hypertension Diet low in sodium may reduce
  the risk of blood pressure, a disease
  associated with many factors.
Dietary fiber and heart disease Low-fat diets rich in
  fiber-contain grain products, fruits,
  and vegetables may reduce the
  risk of some types of cancer,
  disease associated with many factors.


Vitamins

At the beginning of the research concerning vitamins no one knew their chemical structure and therefore proper scientific names could not be given. The vitamins were therefore designated by a letter of the alphabet.

Some of the substances cited below are nowadays not considered as vitamins any more. However they are listed here as a reference to readers of old books searching historical development of the knowledge of vitamins.

Important vitamins are:
Vitamin A (retinol)

Vitamin B-complex group:
B1 (thiamine)
B2 (riboflavin)
B3 (niacin, niacinamide)
B4 (adenine)
B5 (pantothenic acid)
B6 (pyridoxine)
B10 also called Bx or PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid)
B11 (growth factors, vitamin B11
B12 (cobalamin, Cyanocobalamin)
B13 (orotic acid)
B15 (pangamic acid)
B17 (amygdalin)
Bc (folic acid)
Bt (carnitine) It is a non-essential aminoacid, and is not a vitamin.

Choline
Inositol
C (ascorbic acid)
D (calciferol, viosterol, ergosterol)
E (tocopherol)
F (fatty acids)
Linoleic acid and linolenic acid were classified as vitamin F. Today this classification is not being used any more. G (riboflavin)
H (biotin)
K (menadione)
L (necessary for lactation)
M (folic acid)
P (bioflavonoids)
Rutin, hesperidin, Citrin and other bioflavonoids were grouped under the name of vitamin P. They are not vitamins in its deep meaning because it is not possible to produce deficiency sympotms with bioflavonoid-free nutrition. Pp (niacinamide)
P4 troxerutin
T (growth-promotion substances, termitin, torutinin)

Vitamin T was decribed by Goetsch in 1946. In 1955 it has been prooved that vitamin T was a mixture of vitmamin B1, B2, B6, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, folic acid, biotin, choline, para-aminobenzoic acid and small amounts of vitamin B12.

Vitamin T was told to be responsible for building "giants" of ants and soldiers among the termites whith great heads. Without vitamin T the termites would retain a small head. The unspecific growth-promotion could not be observed in human.[1232] U (extracted from cabbage juice)


Vitamin K

[1241] Vitamin K is an essential fat-soluble micronutrient, which is needed for a unique post-translational chemical modification in a small group of proteins with calcium-binding properties, collectively known as vitamin K-dependent proteins or Gla proteins. Thus far, the only unequivocal role of vitamin K in health is in the maintenance of normal coagulation.

Nutritional vitamin K deficiency is a bleeding tendency caused by the relative inactivity of the procoagulant proteins.

Vitamin K dependent proteins synthesized by other tissues include the bone protein osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein, though their functions remain to be clarified.

Chemical structure of vitamin K[1233]
Vitamin K denotes a group of 2-methilo-naphthoquinone derivatives. They are human lipophilic vitamines linked to blood coagulation, bone health and liver cancer.

Vitamin K$_{2}$ (menaquinone, menatetrenone) is normally produced by bacteria n the intestines and dietary deficiency is extremely rare unless the intestines are heavily damaged.

Vitamin K is a group name for a number of related compounds, which have in common a methylated naphthoquinone ring structure, and which vary in the aliphatic side chain attached at the 3-position. Phylloquinone(also known as vitamin K$_{1}$ invariably contains in its side chain four isoprenoid residues, one of which is unsaturated.

Menaquinones have side chains composed of a variable number of unsaturated isoprenoid residues; generally they are designated as MK-n where n specifies the number of isoprenoids.

Naphthoquinone is the functional group. The mechanism of action is therefore similar for all K-vitamins but intestinal absorption, transport, tissue distribution, and bio-availability may differ due to different lipophilicity of the various side chains, and by the different food matrices in which they occur.

The German Association for Nutrition (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung e.V.) recommend the consumption of vitamin K for Women 65 microg and for man 80 microg /day.

There are two main forms of vitamin K:
Vitamin K$_{1}$ The vitamin K$_{1}$ is the most important and is known as phylloquinone or phytonadione . It is present in green leafy vegetables such as lettuce, broccoli and spinach, and can be synthesised in the gut by microflora.

Vitamin K$_{n}$ A group of compound called menaquinones (MK-n) is can also be found in foods, where " n "stands for a number of prenyl side chains. MK$_{4}$ is found in meat. Fermented food like cheese and natto are rich in MK$_{7}$, MK$_{8}$, and MK$_{9}$ .

Sarah Cockayne and colleagues in a meta-analysis of human clinical trials using MK-4 supplements for bone health conclude that this systematic review suggests that supplementation with phytonadione and menaquinone-4 reduces bone loss. In the case of the latter, there is a strong effect on incident fractures among Japanese patients. [1234]

MK$_{4}$ from natto and other forms of vitamin K were reported to reduce bone loss.

Vitamin K concentrations in elderly people [1240]
Naoko Tsugawa and colleagues state in a researche communication that vitamin K deficiency is associated with low bone mineral density and increased risk of bone fracture. Phylloquinone (K$_{1}$) and menaquinone 4 (MK$_{4}$) and 7 (MK$_{7}$) are generally observed in human plasma; however, data are limited on their circulating concentrations and their associations with bone metabolism or with gama-carboxylation of the osteocalcin molecule.

They conclude that submaximal gama-carboxylation being related to the prevention of fracture or bone mineral loss, circulating vitamin K concentrations in elderly people should be kept higher than those in young people.

Vitamin K deficiency bleeding in infants[1241]
According to WHO vitamin K deficiency in infants up to around age 6 months, although rare, represents a significant public health problem throughout the world. It is now being termed vitamin K deficiency bleeding (VKDB). In adults, primary vitamin K-deficient states that manifest as bleeding are almost unknown.

Danish Osteoporosis Prevention Study (DOPS)[1235] The Danish Osteoporosis Prevention Study (DOPS), however, found vitamin K$_{1}$ to have no effect on the bone mineral density (BMD)reporting that reports that vitamin K1 intake had no impact on BMD and fracture risk of peri-menopausal women. This supports the statement of WHO/FAO that the only unequivocal role of vitamin K in health is in the maintenance of normal coagulation. citeWHObleeding

Vitamin K effect on diabetes

[1236]
Makiko Yoshida and colleagues 2008 in a study concerning the beneficial effect of vitamin K on insulin resistance, found that supplementation with 500 µg/day phylloquinone for 36 months improves the insulin resistance in older men and women. Insulin resistance was measured by homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR) at 36 months as primary outcome, and fasting plasma insulin and glucose were examined as the secondary outcomes.

The authors concluded that Vitamin K supplementation for 36 months at doses attainable in the diet may reduce progression of insulin resistance in older men, but not in women.

The role of Vitamin K1 in BMD, reduced bone fractures and cancer

[1237]
The BMD, or Bone mineral density score is determined by methods using X-ray Absorptiometry, Computed Tomography or Quantitative Ultrasound to determine osteopenia (low bone mass) or osteoporosis. The Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry or DXA is most frequently used in these cases.

According to Cheung and colleagues 2008 vitamin K, aside of its role in blood coagulation, the deficiency of vitamin K1 may play a role in low BMD and risk for fractures.

The authors found in a study that daily 5 mg vitamin K1 supplementation for 2 to 4 years increased serum vitamin K1 levels by 10-fold, and decreased the percentage of undercarboxylated osteocalcin and total osteocalcin levels (bone formation marker), but did not change C-telopeptide levels (bone resorption marker). Women which received supplementation of vitamin K had a reduced number of clinical fractures and cancers.

The authors concluded that daily 5 mg of vitamin K1 supplementation f does not protect against age-related decline in BMD, but may protect against fractures and cancers in postmenopausal women with osteopenia. The authors call for more studies oin this matter.

Dried plums reduces bone loss in rats [1238]
Dried plums are a rich source of polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, improving bone density, microstructure and biomechanics in female animal models of osteopenia.

Brenda Smith and colleagues determine the amount of dried plums which are necessary to decrease bone loss, and looked its mechanism of action. Gonadal hormone deficient male rats were used for the study.

The authors found hat at doses of 15% of the diet or higher, the dried plum supplementation totally prevented the induced decrease in bone mineral density in the rats. At lower doses, modest protective results were found.

The beneficial effects of dried plums were attributed in part to a decrease in osteoclastogenesis via down-regulation of RANKL and stimulation of bone formation mediated by IGF-I.

Colas associated with low bone mineral density (BMD) in older women [1239]
Katherine L. Tucker, in the Framingham Osteoporosis Study, found that cola intake was associated with significantly lower BMD at each hip site, but not the spine, in women but not in men. Similar results were seen for diet cola and, although weaker, for decaffeinated cola.

No significant relations between noncola carbonated beverage consumption and BMD were observed. Total phosphorus intake was not significantly higher in daily cola consumers than in nonconsumers; however, the calcium-to-phosphorus ratios were lower.

The authors concluded that intake of cola, but not of other carbonated soft drinks, is associated with low BMD in women.


Minerals

The active minerals in our body are :
Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Vanadium
Zinc


Phytochemical activity of fruits and vegetables

Carotenoids:: There are about 500 coloured components which are classified as carotenoids. Only six of them are found in appreciable amounts the human body. Vitamin E: is found in vegetable oils and cod liver oil.

Vitamin C: is found in citrus fruits, kiwi, strawberry, melon, tomato, green pepper, potato.

Flavonoids: are a class over 4.000 phytochemicals that are responsible for ultra-violet protection within the plant and which may have a protective action against chronic diseases. Soybeans and their products are rich in isoflavonoids. Glucosinolates are found in brassica vegetables. When the plant is damaged by cutting or chewing the glucosinolates break down into substances with biological activity giving the characteristic smell of watercress which is only released when the leaves are crushed or cut.

Examples of Glucosinolates are sulphorophane from broccoli which is active against cancerous bowel cells, and sinigrin from brussels sprout making cancerous cells to die.

It seems unlikely that the most beneficial source of these compounds for the majority of the population will be from single-substance supplements, but rather from consumption of a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. Many of these phytochemicals are not destroyed by processing, but may actually become more readily available for digestion.

Beta-carotene for example is more readily available from processed tomatoes and canned apricots then from fresh fruits. The decay of vitamin C in frozen peas and vegetables is slower as the decay after days by normal temperatures.

A better understanding of the need to eat a wide variety of fruit and vegetables, both fresh and processed may turn out to be a more important message than eating a certain number of portions a day[1357].

Definition of functional Food according to European consensus publication

The European consensus publication of ILS an European-coordinated concerted action FUFOSE [623] consider as context:

A food can be regarded as "functional" if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a way which is relevant to either the state of well-being and health or the reduction of the risk of a disease.

Beneficial effects can be:
1- Maintenance or promotion of a state of well-being or health.
2- Reduction of the risk of a pathologic process or a disease.


A food can be made "functional"by: 1- applying any technological or biotechnological means to increase the concentration of, add, remove or modify a particular component as well as to:
2- improve its bioavailability.

Promising range of functional foods are:
Lycopenein tomatoes, fruits and vegetables containing vitamins and secondary phytocompounds like phytoestrogenic substances with cancer protective activity.

Vitamin A, provitamin A, vitamin C and E blocking free radicals.

Soluble and insoluble fibers[658] in fruits and vegetables can be enriched in functional foods protecting specifically against intestinal cancer.

Insoluble fibers in plant cell walls are associated with phenolic compounds which are natural antioxidants.

Experiments have demonstrated that potatoes peels replacing wheat flour in oatmeal cookies reduces peroxides values because of the content of phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acids (Arora and Camire, 1994)[658].

Skins and flesh of grapes as waste of wine and grape juice are available as commercial product under the name of Vitis Fibre. Saura-Calixto 1998 compared Selenium this product with the activity of red wine skins and alpha-tocopherol. Although positive findings were reported safety of these ingredients on regard to concentration of pesticides and other environment poisons should be carefully studied.

Selenium as trace element in wheat germs, acting against free radicals can be enriched in corn flakes.

Zinc from vegetables and marine animals is an important part of our immune system. An undersupply of zinc makes susceptible to cold and cancer.

Green tea and its extracts acting against free radicals can be incorporated in energy drinks and other beverages.

An example of functional food is probiotic yoghurt with bacteria which can survive acidity of the digestive tract and settle in the small and large intestine.The special strains of these Lactobacillae help digestion or strengthen the immune system.

Microencapsulated probiotics: Microencapsulation technology is being used to protect probiotic bacteria from the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract.

There is a poor survival of probiotic bacteria in many probiotic health-based products. Some methods of micro-encapsulation of probiotic bacteria include spray drying, extrusion, emulsion and phase separation have not been successful for industrial shelf-stable products. Other methods were tried using calcium-alginate gel capsules, carrageenan, gellan gum, gelatin and starch as excipients.

The need to design and develop equipment that will generate presise and uniform micro or nano capsules in large quantities have been reported by Kallasapathy[2936] Probio'Stick is based on two probiotic strains Rosell-52 and Rosell-175. It is being evaluated to relieve some of the chronic stress-related disorders, nausea and abdominal pain, and its benefits for sufferers of irritable bowel syndrome

Other studies on the benefit of micro-encapsulated probiotics on irritable bowel syndrome used the bacterium Bifidobacterium infantis 35624. The study was conducted by Clinical Trials, US National Institutes of health. [2933]

Another hopeful part of functional food are the Omega-3 LCPs (Long Chain Polyunsaturated fatty acids)also called omega-3-fatty acids. These fatty acids are told to lower the level of blood cholesterol reduce incidence of peripheric heart vessel diseases, are essential for the development of the retina and brain of new born babies.

Omega-3-fatty acids are already present in omega-3 enriched eggs.Further informations under the keyword omega.

Omega-3-fatty acids are refined from marine oils produced by Roche Vitamins Europe and can be incorporated into a wide range of everyday foods, from bread,milk and margarine to mayonnaise

Special substances of plants such as phytosterols can be enriched in functional foods and reduce the risk of heart and vessels diseases. Sterols are already being enriched in some special brands of margarine. Further informations under keyword sterol.

A functional food may be "functional" for some specific groups and act as normal nutrition for the rest of the population. Specific groups which are affected may be school-age children, pregnant women, elderly, insulin-resistant people or disease-risked people.

Research on health linkages between foods and botanical ingredients find new ways to effective alternative ways to treat or to avoid diseases such as new researches on zeaxanthin and lutein to improve vision and prevent cataracts and macula degeneration. This study is being made by the US Department of Agriculture.[566]

New studies are funded by US's National Institutes of Health concerning melatonin related to weight control, aging and contraception.

Cherry juice and sports drinks[2080]
Tart cherries are known to be rich in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.

Such anti-inflammatory agents may be beneficial for the management and prevention of inflammatory diseases.

Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues propose that the flavonoids and anthocyanins in the cherries exert an anti-inflammatory effect and may lessen the damage response to exercise. [2076]

In another study Declan Connolly tested the efficacy of a tart cherry cherry juice blend in preventing the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. This study was published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, demonstrating that the strength loss and pain were significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo . Relaxed elbow angle and muscle tenderness were not different between trials.

Connolly came to the conclusion that cherry juice decreased some of the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. These results have important practical applications for athletes affected by strength loss and pain after damaging exercises.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Strawberries in Overweight/obese Individuals: Research Project, Agricultural Research Service, USDA Gov[2081]
Adipose tissue is a major source of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-', and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.

Strawberries contain high levels of antioxidants including ellagic acid, catechins, anthocyanins, and the flavanols quercetin and kaempferol, all of which have displayed anti-inflammatory abilities.

The specific hypothesis is that strawberries contain potent anti-inflammatory antioxidants that can prevent the oxidization of LDL involved in the generation of atherosclerotic plaques, reduce the production of inflammatory cytokines in obese individuals, and suppress the immune response.

Cherry juice and sports drinks[2080]
Tart cherries are known to be rich in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.

Such anti-inflammatory agents may be beneficial for the management and prevention of inflammatory diseases.

Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues propose that the flavonoids and anthocyanins in the cherries exert an anti-inflammatory effect and may lessen the damage response to exercise. [2076]

In another study Declan Connolly tested the efficacy of a tart cherry cherry juice blend in preventing the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. This study was published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, demonstrating that the strength loss and pain were significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo. Relaxed elbow angle and muscle tenderness were not different between trials.

Connolly came to the conclusion that cherry juice decreased some of the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. These results have important practical applications for athletes affected by strength loss and pain after damaging exercises.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Strawberries in Overweight/obese Individuals: Research Project, Agricultural Research Service, USDA Gov[2081]
Adipose tissue is a major source of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-', and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.

Strawberries contain high levels of antioxidants including ellagic acid, catechins, anthocyanins, and the flavanols quercetin and kaempferol, all of which have displayed anti-inflammatory abilities.

The specific hypothesis is that strawberries contain potent anti-inflammatory antioxidants that can prevent the oxidization of LDL involved in the generation of atherosclerotic plaques, reduce the production of inflammatory cytokines in obese individuals, and suppress the immune response.

Calculating caffeine content:

Coffee content is about 80 mg caffeine/100 mL of coffee, and 26 mg per 100 mL of tea. [571]

One cup of coffee contains about 85 mg of caffeine, almost twice the caffeine content of tea (45mg) [609]

Coffee and pregnancy

The effect of consumption of caffeine in coffee and other beverages (energy drinks like Red Bull) on fertility, spontaneous abortion and premature birth, foetal malformations, foetal growth and birth weight takes Gil Esparza in Alimentaria No. 293, 109-112 to the conclusion to limit the intake of caffeine to 200-300 mg/day. Such an intake was found to have no adverse effects on the foetus during pregnancy. Avoiding black coffee may help to avoid cancer of the esophagus. Tannin, found in coffee and tea, is a suspected carcinogen. The protein in milk, though, neutralizes tannin, rendering it non-absorbable by the body.

Coffee may reduce risk of ovarian cancer

[2082] Tworoger, Shelley S. and colleagues examined the associations between smoking, caffeine, and alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk. The authors found that neither current nor past smoking was associated with ovarian cancer risk overall; however, both were associated with mucinous tumors. Caffeine from three or more cups of coffee may reduce epithelial ovarian cancer risk. more pronounced in women who had never used hormones. No association between alcohol and ovarian cancer risk was found.

Caffeine and gamma rhythm[567]

Dr. Martin Vreugdenhil says that caffeine might enhance memory by blocking the calming effect of adenosine neurotransmitter. Adenosine increases during the day and rising age. It binds to the A1 receptor decreasing the activity of nerve cells. Binding to an A2a receptor it boosts activity. The authors have found that caffeine boosts the gamma rhythms, due to a selective blocking of the A1 receptor. They conclude that a few cups of coffee could increase gamma rhythm strength, contributing to the cognitive beneficial effects of caffeine warning, however, against drinking excessive amounts or very strong coffee considering the sleep problems and effects on the heart and blood system caused by caffeine They call for scientists to separate the beneficial effects from the side effects.

Volatile compounds of coffee aroma alleviate sleep deprivation stress and have antioxidant activities

[568]
There are about 900 volatile compounds in the aroma of roasted coffee beans. Han-Seok Seo and colleagues found that the volatiles in coffee induce changes in the expression of messenger RNA (mRNA)and protein levels in the rat brain, resulting in antioxidant or stress relaxation activities.

mRNA are messenger molecules that indicate when a gene is being expressed. There are 11 genes which are important to brain function. When the rats were exposed to the aroma of coffee, the mRNA for nine of the genes was restored to near normal levels, and pushed to above normal levels for two: GIR which is involved in neuro-endocrine control, and NFGR, which controls oxidative stress.

The authors concluded that it is not yet known if the results may be translated to humans, however, these results may explain why coffee is preferred by humans when they need to stay awake. The volatiles of the coffee aroma may help alleviate the stress of the sleep deprivation caused by sleep deprivation changing the mRNA and protein expression levels of the rat brain, and have antioxidant activities.

Antioxidant activity of caffeine

[569]
The antioxidant activity of caffeine metabolites and colonic metabolites m-coumaric acid and dihydroferulic acid in coffee was studied by José Ángel Gómez-Ruiz and colleagues. The caffeine metabolite 1-Methyluric acid was able to delay for more than 13 h human low-density lipoprotein LDL oxidation by copper and 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride.

Dr. Francesca Bravi and colleagues found, in a meta-analysis, an inverse relation between coffee drinking and liver cancer and the risk of other liver diseases, suggesting favourable effect of coffee on liver function. These findings justify moderate coffee consume [570]

Coffee and tea may reduce risk of a certain type of stroke

[571]
Larsson and colleagues 2008 in a large, prospective, observational study using data from the Finnish Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study showed that smokers who consumed 8 or more cups of coffee per day, and those who drank 2 or more cups of black tea daily had reduced cerebral infarction risk.

The authors concluded that high consumption of coffee and tea may reduce the risk of cerebral infarction among men but not to other types of stroke, such as intracerebral hemorrhages, subarachnoid hemorrhages, and unspecified strokes.

The effect of adenosine A1 receptor modulation on brain rhythms and cognitive functions[572]
At the University of Birmingham further projects aime to assess mechanisms underlying the beneficial cognitive effects of caffeine and selective adenosine A1 receptor agonists in electrophysiological studies in vitro and in vivo, and in behavioural studies.

Caffeine and reduction of Alzheimer's disease

[573]
Research carried out at the Faculty of Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal, and published in the European Journal of Neurology (2002, 9 (4): 377-382) found that consuming 200 mg of caffeine a day may reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. Experiments on mice had previously found caffeine to be promising as a treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Study supports caffeine protection of the blood brain barrier

[574]
Chen and colleagues 2008 studied the way how chronic ingestion of caffeine protects against high cholesterol diet-induced disruptions of the blood brain barrier (BBB). High levels of serum cholesterol and disruptions of the blood brain barrier may increase risk of Alzheimer's disease.

In this study rabbits were fed with a 2% cholesterol-enriched diet and 3 mg caffeine daily for 12 weeks. Caffeine reduced the biochemical indicators of disruption of the blood brain barrier.

The authors concluded that chronic ingestion of caffeine protects against high cholesterol diet-induced disruptions of the BBB. They suggest that caffeine and drugs similar to caffeine might be useful in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. According to the authors caffeine is a safe and readily available drug which stabilises the blood brain barrier and protects against neurological disorders.

Caffeine improving the time to exhaustion in excersise tests

[575]
According to a study by Douglas G. Bell and Tom McLellan caffeine improves the time to exhaustion in exercise tests, the effects of caffeine were still apparent six hours after ingestion and heart rates were higher for the non-users throughtout the trials.

Six hours after ingestion of caffeine effects were still apparent. During trials non-users experienced higher heart rates. The authors concluded that both the duration and magnitude of the ergogenic effect that followed a 5 mg/kg dose of caffeine were greater in the no-users compared with the users

Caffeine and diabetes mellitus 2 [576]
SoJung Lee in a study found that caffeine ingestion was associated with a significant reduction in insulin sensitivity by a similar magnitude in the lean, obese, and type 2 diabetic groups in comparison with placebo. After exercise training, caffeine ingestion was still associated with a reduction in insulin sensitivity.

The authors conclude that caffeine consumption is associated with a substantial reduction in insulin-mediated glucose uptake independent of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and chronic exercise.

Coffee and risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction and genotype F1 [577]
Caffeine is metabolised by the polymorphic cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) enzyme. Individuals who are homozygous for the CYP1A2-1A allele (genotype F1A) are rapid caffeine metabolisers, whereas carriers of the variant CYP1A2-1F (genotype F1) are slow caffeine metabolisers.

Marilyn C. and colleagues studied the activity of genotype CYP1A2 in residents of Costa Rica, in relation to the association between coffee consumption and risk of acute nonfatal myocardial infarction.

The authors concluded that intake of coffee was associated with an increased risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction only among individuals with slow caffeine metabolism (genotype F1), suggesting that caffeine plays a role in this association.

Coffee triggering myocardial infarction [578]
Dr. Anna Baylin and colleagues believe that coffee in the presence of predisposing factors can induce a cascade of events that, through sympathetic nervous activation, can induce the onset of myocardial infarction.The findings of their study indicate that coffee intake may trigger myocardial infarction. The association is particularly strong among people with light/occasional intake of coffee (one or less cup/day), with sedentary lifestyle, or with 3 or more risk factors for coronary heart disease.

Commentary on the researche of Baylin and colleagues: David S. Siscovick writes that there may be major differences between Costa Rica where the research of Baylin and colleagues were made, and other countries in other factors such as the dietary consumption of saturated fatty acids from tropical oils. He says that the effect modification could occur with differences in lifestyle, health status, or medical therapies. Siscovick concludes that the differences in these potential effect modifiers would need to be explored fully before assuming that the hazard would be similar in other settings. [579]

Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease [580]

Frank B. Hu and Walter C. Willet (2002) to reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases, suggest diets using nonhydrogenated unsaturated fats as the predominant form of dietary fat, whole grains as the main form of carbohydrates, an abundance of fruits and vegetables, and adequate omega-3 fatty acids, together with regular physical activity, avoidance of smoking, and maintenance of a healthy body weight.

Western dietary pattern in women is linked to cardiovascular, cancer and all-cause mortality

[581]
Christin Heidemann and colleagues 2008 found that women who eat a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole grains, fish and poultry may reduce their risk for death from cardiovascular disease and from all causes, according to the results of a prospective study. In contrast, women who follow a traditional "Western" diet of red and processed meat, refined grains, french fries, and sweets are at a higher risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes.

Clear labelling of caffeine content in caffeinated beverages [582] Mc Cusker, Golberg and Cone analysed caffeine content of some caffeinated beverages. Surprisingly high levels of caffeine were found in products without labelling it:

The authors say that due to health concerns arising from the consumption of caffeine it seems appropriate that warning labels should accompany all caffeinated beverages. They should display the caffeine content on their labels to prevent those at risk from consuming too much caffeine.

High caffeine intake is associated with delayed conception, spontaneous miscarriage and low birth weight, but not with birth defects. The current position (2008) of the American Dietetic Association is that pregnant women should avoid caffeine intake above 300 mg per day. In its position paper"Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome" The Association outlines references for healthy standards for the nutritionduring pregnancy.[583]

Caffeine consumption during pregnancy, advice 2008

[584]
The CARE Study Group found in a study published in 2008 that caffeine intake by pregnant women was linked to babies being born with a low birth weight, or even being miscarried. The Group recorded caffeine intake in the four weeks before and throughout pregnancy. Individual caffeine metabolism was calculated using a saliva sample test. The average caffeine intake during pregnancy was 159 mg/day. This is below of the UK government's recommended limit of 300 mg/day. Of the caffeine consumed, 62% came from tea, 14% from coffee, 12% from cola, 8% from chocolate and 2% from soft drinks.

Taking as the base pregnant women consuming less than 100 mg/day (the equivalent of one cup of coffee), the risk of having a lower birth baby increased by 20% for intakes of 100-199 mg/day, by 50% for those taking between 200-299 mg/day, and by 40% for over 300 mg/day. Women who metabolised caffeine more quickly presented a stronger link between caffeine and a reduced birth weight, compared with those of a low caffeine metabolism.

The CARE Study Group concluded that caffeine consumption during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of fetal growth restriction and this association continued throughout pregnancy. The group calls for a reduction of caffeine intake before conception and throughout pregnancy.

FSA new advice on caffeine consumption during pregnancy

[585]
The Agency had previously recommended a maximum daily intake of 300mg. However, the new research, published by the CARE Study Groupe Nov. 2008, suggests a limit of 200 mg per day will help to reduce this low risk even further. The FSA says that the new advice means that there is no need to cut out caffeine completely, pregnant women should, however, be careful not to have too much and to reduce caffeine as much as possible.

The European Union on caffeinated drinks [586] As far as caffeine is concerned, the Scientific Committee for Food, in its opinion of 21 January 1999 on caffeine and other substances used as ingredients in "energy drinks", concluded that, for adults, apart from pregnant women, the contribution of "energy drinks" to the total consumption of caffeine did not appear to be a cause for concern, assuming that "energy drinks" replace other sources of caffeine.

However, for children, an increase in the daily intake of caffeine to a certain level of consumption per day may bring about temporary changes in behaviour, such as increased excitability, irritability, nervousness or anxiety. In addition, for pregnant women, the Committee's view is that moderation of caffeine intake is advisable.

These findings make it necessary to provide labelling which gives the consumer clear information on the presence or otherwise of quinine or caffeine in a foodstuff and, in the case of caffeine, to provide a warning message and an indication of the amount of caffeine, where this is in excess of a specific level, in beverages which do not naturally contain caffeine.

Where a beverage which is intended for consumption without modification, or after reconstitution of the concentrated or dried product, contains caffeine, from whatever source, in a proportion in excess of 150 mg/l, the following message must appear on the label in the same field of vision as the name under which the product is sold: High caffeine content.

Excluded from this regulation are beverages based on coffee, tea or coffee or tea extract where the name under which the product is sold includes the term "coffee" or "tea".

Combination of alcohol and energy drinks like Red Bull [594]
Young adults increasingly use energy drinks in the hope to reduce the intensity of the depressant effects of alcohol. Objective motor coordination and visual reaction time is, however, not improved traffic safety is thus endangered when alcohol is consumed together with energy drinks like Red Bull and GSK Lucozade Energy.

A Brazilian study leaded by Sionaldo Eduardo Ferreira studied the effect of energy drinks on symptoms of alcohol intoxication. The study cocludes that the ingestion of alcohol plus energy drink significantly reduced subjects' perception of headache, weakness, dry mouth, and impairment of motor coordination.

However, the ingestion of the energy drink did not significantly reduce the deficits caused by alcohol on objective motor coordination and visual reaction time. The ingestion of the energy drink did not alter the breath alcohol concentration in either group.

Energy drinkscannot reduce the harmful effects of alcohol on motor coordination, the person is drunk but does not feel as drunk as he really is. Energy drinks also dangerously increase the amount and the speed of ingestion -of alcoholic beverages.

Earlier findings demonstrate that even a small volume (250ml) of a specially formulated energy drink (Solstis, GlaxoSmithKline, Brentford UK, providing 75 mg caffeine and 37.5 g glucose) can have a consistent effect on sleepiness, lane keeping and speed choice in traffic.

These findings are important, and if supported by further research could have implications for future highway safety. This study, however, gives no information about a simultaneous consumption of energy drinks and alcohol intoxication as it highlights the effect on sleepiness in absence of alcohol.[587]

Energy drinks as nutritional healthcare product The GSK company promotes its Lucozade glucose energy and sports drinks under the category of nutritional healthcare product giving them a touch of health and fittness. [588]

New data suggest that energy drinks increase health risks

[589]
Energy drinks contain caffeine, taurine, inosite and glucuronolactone. Energy drinks with high popularity are Red Bull, Full Throttle, Amp and Rush.

According to the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) provides information on more recent human data on the possible health risks posed by the consumption of energy drinks. It draws attention to reports that cardiac dysrhythmia, seizures, kidney failure and fatalities occurred after consuming energy drinks. The question about the causal relationship is still open.

The BfR calls attention to findings which indicate that test persons no longer realistically assess their dwindling responsiveness caused by alcohol consumption under the influence of energy drinks. The parallel consumption of alcohol and energy drinks can, therefore, lead to an individual misjudging his ability to perform.

Caffeine-containing lemonades which taurine, inosite and glucuronolactone have been added (energy drinks), are approved in Germany as follows:
- caffeine up to max. 320 mg/l,
- taurine up to max. 4000 mg/l,
- inosite up to max. 200 mg/l and
- glucuronolactone up to max. 2400 mg/l

The BfR recommends comprehensive information on product labels in addition to the currently prescribed labelling on a high caffeine content:
- adverse effects cannot be ruled out when larger amounts of these beverages are consumed in conjunction with intensive physical activity or with intake of alcoholic beverages;
- beverages of this kind, particularly when consumed in larger amounts, are not recommended for children, pregnant women, lactating women or individuals who are sensitive to caffeine.

Study says energy drinks may be harmful to people with hypertension, heart disease

[590]
The study, leaded by James Kalus, Pharm.D. says that participants consuming two cans of energy drinks per day had their heart rate increased 7.8 percent the first day and 11 percent the seventh day. Blood pressure increased at least 7 percent the first and seventh days.

The authors recommend that people who have hypertension or heart disease and are taking medication for them to avoid consuming energy drinks because of a potential risk to their health. Kalus stressed further that energy drinks should not be confused with sports drinks, which aim to replenish the carbohydrates and electrolytes that a body needs, and that both caffeine and taurine from energy drinks have a direct impact on cardiac function.

Australia study says one can of energy drink can increase the risk of heart attack or stroke

[591]
Scott Willoughby and colleagues 2008 say that one 250 ml can of the energy drink Red Bull is sufficient to increase the risk of heart attack or stroke, even in young people. The study found that the drink caused the blood to become sticky, a precursor to cardiovascular problems such as stroke. After one hour after Red Bull ingestion, the blood systems were similar to patients with cardiovascular disease. It altered platelet aggregation and endothelial function in young healthy adults. One can contains 80 mg of caffeine and 1000mg of taurine.

Results showed that mean arterial pressure increased significantly after one can of Red Bull but heart rate was unaffected. Platelet reactivity was acutely increased by Red Bull while endothelial function deteriorated.

Willoughby and colleagues stressed that although the incidence of sudden cardiac death is low, the drink could be dangerous for people with any sort of cardiovascular abnormality. They also said that the sugar-free version of Red Bull could increase the danger of blood clots and raise the risk of heart attack or stroke. Energy drinks with caffeine and taurine are banned in Norway, Uruguay and Denmark because of health risks.

Nutritional information on the most popular drinks

[592]
Kotke and Gehrke 2008 provided a table with nutritional information on the most popular drinks. The table was compiled to help renal dietitians to stay informed of the abundance of products and to guide chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients appropriately.

The authors stress that a sports drink is a beverage designed to help athletes rehydrate and replenish sugar and other nutrients that can be depleted after strenuous training or competition. An energy drink is a beverage designed to give the consumer a burst of energy through a combination of ingredients including caffeine, vitamins, minerals, and exotic herbal ingredients. Some CKD patients may need a sports drink if they are training for or performing in a strenuous sports-related event that depletes their electrolytes and sugar. Energy drinks, if approved by the renal dietitian, may be appropriate for patients who can tolerate them.

Kotke and Gehrke say that most energy drinks contain herbal supplements such as guarana, yerba mate leaves, Pannax ginseng, gingko biloba, and milk thistle, which may interact with prescription medications and alter their effectiveness or interact in a harmful way.

Important coffe groups[593]
There are four important coffee groups: Robusta, Columbian Milds, Other Milds and Brazilian Naturals.

Coffee from the species Coffea arabica are richer in flavor than their Coffea robusta conterparts. C. arabica has many different varietals, each with unique characteristics. Some well-known arabica coffees include: Robusta grows at altitudes usually up to 800 meters in Indonesia, West Africa, Brazil and Vietnam representing around 30% of world production.

Arabica grows at altitudes between 600 and 2000 meters in Latin America and East Africa representing 70% of world production.

Diterpenes, bad components of coffee [595]
Urgert and colleagues analysed the coffee diterpenes and their effects on the human serum.

Cafestol and the related compound kahweol was present in unfiltered coffee brews and raises serum concentrations of cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and alanine aminotransferase in humans and and affect liver function.

Filtered coffee is free of diterpenes. They are removed by the paper of the filter. Other materials used as filter should be tested on their ability to retain the diterpenes.

Caffeine
Caffeine, depending upon the quantity consumed: increased alertness, anxiety, irritability, interference with sleep, and jitteriness and is a mild diuretic. The most notable behavioural effects of caffeine occur after consumption of low to moderate doses (50-300 mg) and include increased alertness, energy, and ability to concentrate.

Moderate caffeine consumption rarely leads to health risks. Caffeine was considered in one study as a potential drug of abuse and more recently was described as a model drug of abuse. Coffee can be said to be habit-forming [596]

Moderate consumption of coffee reduces risk of Parkinson disease
The association of caffeine, particularly coffee intake and Parkinson disease was evaluated in the Honolulu Heart Program between 1965 and 1968 concluding that those who consumed caffeine had a significantly lower incidence of PD than those who did not.

For example, the adjusted incidence of PD decreased from 10.4:10,000 person-years in those who did not consume coffee to 1.9:10,000 person years for those who consumed at least 28 ounces/day. This effect was dose-related with increased caffeine consumption inversely correlated with the risk of developing PD. The data suggest that the mechanism is related to caffeine intake and not to other nutrients contained in coffee. [597]

The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke found that available studies evaluating caffeine and PD prevention are overall positive, however they are limited, in that they are primarily retrospection/case-control in nature, or they do not assess caffeine intake in a well controlled manner.

Typically, caffeine or coffee intake is assessed as a categorical variable (1-2 cups/day of coffee), hence there is also no definite dose or dose-range that has been evaluated. [598]

Coffee and reduction of risk for type 2 diabetes
Long-term coffee consumption (7 or more cups of coffee a day) were found by Salazar-Martinez and colleagues to be associated with a statistically significantly lower risk for type 2 diabetes. Total caffeine intake from coffee and other sources was associated with a statistically significantly lower risk for diabetes in both men and women. [599]

Battram and colleagues found that acute alkaloid caffeine (CAF) ingestion results in an impaired glucose tolerance, chronic coffee (RCOF) ingestion decreases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. The effect of RCOF compared with decaffeinated coffee DECAF was less pronounced.[600]

Coffee, caffeine and diabetes 2 risk

[601]
Dam and Hu in 2005 found that higher coffee consumption was consistently associated with a lower prevalence of postprandial hyperglycemia. They concluded that habitual coffee consumption is associated with a substantially lower risk of type 2 diabetes.

Legrand and Scheen in 2007 reviewed studies on the relationship between type 2 diabetes and coffee drinking, the most of them confirmed a protective effect against the disorder. Decaffeinated coffee had a stronger protective effect as compared to regular coffee. The authors stress that the blood glucose reduction could not be attributed exclusively to caffeine and other components, such as chlorogenic acid and/or various anti-oxidants may add to the effect. [602]

Caffeine found to increase diabetes risk

[603]
Dr James Lane and his colleagues in 2008 found that too much caffeine can raise blood glucose levels and impede the transport of glucose from the blood into muscle and other cells.

A moderate dose of 500 mg/day caffeine their average daily blood glucose levels rose by 8% and at peaks up to 26%.

The authors are uncertain about the mechanism of action of caffeine but suggest that it might inhibit inhibit glucose uptake in adipocytes and skeletal muscle cells by antagonising adenosine receptors. Another way of action could be that caffeine might act indirectly by pushing up levels of adrenalin. The authors suggest to quit drinking coffee, or any other caffeinated beverages to reduce blood glucose.

Coffee and rectal cancer
Consumption of caffeinated coffee, tea with caffeine, or caffeine was not associated with incidence of colon or rectal cancer, whereas regular consumption of decaffeinated coffee was associated with a reduced incidence of rectal cancer. [604]

Coffee and liver cancer
Manami Inoue and colleagues found that drinking coffee on a daily or almost daily basis resulted in a lower hepatocellular carcinoma HCC risk than those who almost never drank coffee; risk decreased with the amount of coffee consumed.

The risk of liver cancer in almost never drinkers in this population was 547.2 cases per 100 000 people over 10 years, but it was 214.6 cases per 100 000 people with drinking coffee on a daily basis. In the Japanese population, habitual coffee drinking may be associated with reduced risk of HCC. [605]

The FINE Study [606]

The FINE Study, a prospective European cohort study, investigated whether coffee consumption is associated with 10-year cognitive decline in elderly men in the Finland, Italy and The Netherlands.

The study found that caffeine use or coffee consumption is associated with better cognitive functioning. [607] [608] However, Johnson 2002 found cognitive performance induced by coffee elderly women but not in elderly men. [611]

The Study pointed out that Fredholm and colleagues (1999) suggest that caffeine acts as an antagonist on the A2a adenosine receptors in the brain, which consequently stimulates cholinergic neurons. According to the researchers, its weak reinforcing properties are due to a unique and atypical mechanism of action caffeine is a self-limiting drug and subjects do not gradually increase the dose, because tolerance development to both the reinforcing and aversive effects is limited. [609]. According to Dall'Igna and colleagues (2002) these neurons protect against beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity, a precursor of cognitive decline. [610]

Coffee is a major source of caffeine and one cup of coffee contains about 85 mg of caffeine, almost twice the caffeine content of tea (45mg) .

Research of Freedholm and colleagues with mice showed caffeine from coffee acts as an antagonist on the A$_{2a}$ adenosine receptors in the brain. [609] Dall'Igna and colleagues found that this stimulates the secretion of cholinergic neurotransmitters, preventing beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in cerebellar neurons. [610]

Kopf and colleagues 1999 suggest that the A$_{2a}$ adenosine receptor has an effect on the memory part of the brain, the hippocampus. [612]

Other important substances of coffee, like magnesium and many phenolic acids, such as chlorogenic acid increase the antioxidant capacity in plasma, protecting neurons from oxidative damage are highlighted by Nardini and Christensen. [613] [614]

Conclusions of the FINE Study
Coffee reduces cognitive decline in elderly men, with the least cognitive decline for men consuming three cups of coffee per day.

Caffeine and newborn infants
There is no blood-brain barrier to caffeine in the adult or the fetal animal [615]. There is no placental barrier to caffeine [616] [617] and unusually high levels of caffeine have been reported in premature infants born to women who are heavy caffeine consumers. [5]

Caffeine equivalents [619]
In general, each of the following contains approximately 200 mg of caffeine:
1 fluid ounce (US and CA) = 29,56 ml
1 fluid ounce (GB) = 28,41 ml

Caffeinated carbonated beverages contain from 20-70 mg of caffeine. A cup of coffee contains between 65 and 175 mg. A cup or glass of tea typically contains 40-70 mg. A chocolate bar contains about 30 mg.

Gunpowder tea:

Gunpowder tea [620] is made up of leaves hand-rolled into tiny pellets resembling gunpowder. Rolling tea leaves into gunpowder tea renders the leaves less susceptible to physical damage and allows them to retain more of their flavor and aroma.

Claims for functional foods

Claims for functional foods There are two main types of claims for functional foods[623]:
  1. Enhanced function claims: There are given interactions of a food component and specific functions in the body.There are no direct references to diseases given.
    Some examples of enhanced function claims are:
    Strengthening the immune functions
    Antioxidants, acting against oxidative stress
    Restore or stabilize bacterial intestinal colonies such as the stimulation of Bifidus bacteria (Bifidobacterium longum
    Bioavailability of minerals by milk oligopeptides or inulin.
  2. Diseases risk reduction claim: Not allowed by German Food Regulation.New regulations on European level are therefore needed to make these claims European wide accepted.Some examples of disease risk reduction claims are:
    Cardiovascular diseases
    Intestinal infections
    Diarrhoea,constipation
    Osteoporosis
    Non-insulin dependent diabetes or obesity


Definition of Probiotics

Since 1960 bacteria used in the therapy of people with pathological modified intestinal flora and prophylactic purpose were called probiotics. Probiotics are especially selected microorganisms showing a health-promoting effect on the host organism if consumed in a certain cell count, influencing the microbiological composition of the gastro-intestinal tract. The specific activity must surpass the activity of usual food.

Probiotic bacteria and irritable bowel syndrome(IBS): The concept of small bowel bacterial overgrowth (SBBO) as an explanation for IBS symptoms and the use of a probiotic to help promote normal digestive function has been proposed.

Certain strain of bacteria like Rosell-52 and Rosell-175 are available as a micro-encapsulated Probio'Stick in thin tubes to be protected against the acidity of the stomach. They are being surveyed concerning the reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms, nausea and abdominal pain, related to stress disorders. Improvements of sufferers of irritable bowel syndrome were reported by Dr. Laurent Diop
There is a poor survival of probiotic bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract. Several methods of micro-encapsulation of probiotic bacteria included spray drying, extrusion, emulsion and phase separation had not achieved satisfactory results. The most common reported method is the calcium-alginate gel capsule formation. Other excipients are kappa-carrageenan, gellan gum, gelatin and starch. The available equipment for micro-encapsulation must undergo further development in order to generate precise and uniform micro or nano capsules in large quantities for industrial application. [2936]

For micro-encapsulation to be applicable in probiotic yoghurt, the beads should not be sensed by the consumer. Small and uniform beads may allow the retention of a desirable mouth feeling as well as minimise cell death due to oxygen toxicity.[2937]

Other studies of the efficacy of encapsulated probiotic bacteria in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)were performed by ClinicalTrials.gov, U.S. National Institutes of Health, using Bifidobacterium Infantis 35624 under the ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00135031. [2933]


Probiotics and prevention of diarrhoea

[621] A meta-analysis evaluated the evidence for the use of probiotics in the prevention of acute diarrhoea.

Results suggest that probiotics significantly reduced antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, reduced the risk of travellers' diarrhoea, and that of acute diarrhoea of diverse causes, and reduces the associated risk of acute diarrhoea among children and adults.

The protective effect did not vary significantly among the probiotic strains Saccharomyces boulardii, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and other strains used alone or in combinations of two or more strains.

Probiotic bacteria can ameliorate stress induced gastrointestinal disorders

[622]
According to Laurent Diop and colleagues, the stress induces various disorders with gastrointestinal, physical, and psychological symptoms, in this case probiotics can help regulate or modulate gastrointestinal functions.

The authors found that the consumption of probiotics significantly reduced stress-induced gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain and nausea/vomiting.

For this study a proprietary blend of Lactobacillus acidophilus Rosell-52 and Bifidobacterium longum Rosell-175 was used.

The researchers concluded that this blend of probiotic strains can provide a beneficial effect on the gastrointestinalsymptoms experienced by individuals affected by chronic stress.

Negative outcome probiotics in acute pancreatitis

[2934]
According to a press release of Gut Flora from 23.01.2007 in a study concerning the effects of probiotics in patien was given probiotics than in the group that was not. Earlier studies had shown that that the treatment reduce the rate of pancreas infection.

In this study twenty-four died in the study group and nine died in the control group. It is not know what has caused the higher death rate, but the investigators advise colleagues not to use probiotic bacteria in the acute phase of this serious disease, at intensive-care patients,or the administration of probiotics through a feeding tube (directly into the intestine).

The bacteria involved in the research were varieties of Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, or Bifidobacterium, from the DutchWinclove Bio Industries


Definition of prebiotics

Prebiotics are ingredients which help the intestinal flora to develop. Inulin is an example of a prebiotic ingredient which helps Bifidus to develop.

The effective daily dosage of prebiotics like fructooligosaccharides (FOS) for humans is 3.0 g and and 0.7 g for xylooligosaccharides (XOSs). [2935]


Definition of symbiotic

Symbiotic is the combination of probiotic ( the positive acting intestinal flora) and prebiotics (the ingredients which help intestinal flora).


Cholesterol-reducing claim

The USA Food and Drug administration has approved at 8.07.99 the claim that a a nutrition rich on fibres and low fat reduces the risk of cardiac infarct.

Targets for functional foods according Roberfroid:

Targets for functional food are[623]: In functional food there should be included also Mood Food. Depressions and changes of mood can be influenced by neurotransmitter enriched food.

Unfortunately European Functional Foods market is dominated by digestive products. US market addresses a wide range of health conditions such as arthritis, cholesterol, blood pressure lowering,insomnia, immune booster and vision enhancer. They are called "Health Food"[566].

German regulations forbid to point out prophylactic,relieve or healing activities of food.

Mood Food

Giesela Krahl in her book "Mood Food"[525] explains the relationship between food and mood. Mood food utilizes the knowledge of physiology and pharmacology to create good mood.

Changes of mood and sudden bad feeling are not always a disease of body or soul and food is not medicine, but according to Krahl there is a relation between them.

A deep depression will not be solved by a meal of bananas, however bananas are a good choice because they interfere in the physiology of serotonin and help to lower the grip of depression.

After explaining the fundamentals of this relationship in her book Krahl gives excellent formulas and suggestions of fine food to trigger high feeling.
Color, taste, smell and composition of meals can act positively on our feeling.
Some substances which interfere with the mood[525] :

Serotonin

Serotoninis a neurotransmitter which regulates our feeling and our mood.
High serotonin levels are responsible for a balanced feeling and contentment.

Low levels of serotonin may produce fear, anxiety, and depression.
Serotonin is made by our body using tryptophan.
Sugar and carbohydrates trigger the production of insulin which helps tryptophane to get to the brain where serotonin can be built out of this raw material. Sugar acts more quickly on the mood as carbohydrate rich food such as pasta and rice do. The good mood of candies last however less time as carbohydrate rich food do.

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Tryptophan is an essential amino acid which cannot be prepared by the body itself. It must assimilated with food.
The synthesis of serotonin needs tryptophan and carbohydrates in higher concentration as fat and proteins.

Dr. Astrid Lindhorst is studying neurotransmitters of the Hypothalamus, a part of the limbic system.[526] The limbic system makes the connection between consciousness, emotions and motivations at one side and the activity of the internal organs on the other side.

Dr. Lindhorst studies the production of neurotransmitters under stress situations.
The neurotransmitter of importance on this study are serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamin also called 5-HT) and 5 hydroxyindolacetic acid(5HIAA)

Serotonin is used in pharmacy in antidepressants. Foods rich in carbohydrates such as pastas and rice as well as sugar rises the blood level of serotonin acting as happy food. The neurotransmitter are extracted with microdialysis and measured with HPLC.
Catecholamineare responsible for vigilance, attention, activity.
The group of catecholamines also embraces the neurotransmitter adrenalin ,noradrenalin and dopamine. These substances carry messages keeping ones awake and active. They affect attention, sexual activity, aggressiveness and regulate the appetite.

Formation of catecholamine:

Tyrosine can be made by the body.
Phenylalanine must be obtained from food, it is an essential aminoacid.
Phenylalanine triggers the motivation, the memory and learning.
Phenylalanine produces in the brain a neuroregulator which is very near in its structure to the doping drugs amphetamines which peps up.
To form catecholamine the body needs tyrosine, phenylalanine different minerals and vitamins.
Tyrosine is an aminoacid which the body can buildup by himself.Phenylalanine however must be present in food.

Phenylalanine

Is psychoactive substance which boosts the motivation, makes thinking active and makes learning better. In brain phenylalanine produces a neuroregulator which is very near to amphetamines used by drug addicts and acts antidepressive.

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is a messenger substance which is found in the brain an in the neurovegetative system and changes informations between nerve cells and muscle cells.It also has a function on thinking, learning.
It is being formed starting from choline.

Endorphine, enkephalin, neuropeptides and similar substances

Endorphin,enkephalin and neuropeptides are messenger substances of the brain which are similar to opiates regulating fear, rage, euphoria, sexual drive, and the perception of pain. These substances are made by the body himself starting from serotonin and acetylcholine during long physical activities such as marathon, music playing and daydreams.

Sources of neurotransmitters

Our body is not capable to produce by himself the whole amount of hormones and neurotransmitters which are needed. Our brain must be continuously fed with special substances which are present in food. These compounds are responsible for good function of the brain.
Our food bears a never ending number of compounds which are necessary to the function of life.This however does not mean that bananas , soy bean, vegetables or yoghurt should be sold in health stores and pharmacies as powerful medicine.
We cannot live without food. Industry however should not advertise food as concentrated drugs which can perform miracles in short time. Food act on long time basis. Food should be varied to cover all our needs.Eating continuously one brand of yoghurt will not cover all aspects of our life.
Some foods together with some functions are listed below. This shows that a variety of ingredients are needed of our meal are necessary to cover all our needs.


Neurotransmitter Source
Serotonin Pasta, rice, potatoes, cereals (wholemeal), bread, nuts,
  almonds, dates, figs, bananas, pineapple and chestnuts.
Tyrosine and Phenylalanine milk and milk products, Eggs, potatoes, rice,
  soy, noodle, poultry, meat and fish,
  in aspartame and chocolate.
Choline and acetylcholine lecithin from soy,beer yeasts, soy, seeds,
  nuts,wheat germs, vegetables, cereals (wholemeal),
  liver, eggs and cheese.
Endorphin, enkephalin,  
neuropeptides everything rich in carbohydrates like cereals, pasta,
  honey,bananas, dried fruits, food rich in fat like
  nuts, cream, butter, cocoa and cheese.Chocolate and
  gum bears are therefore eaten during depressions.


Active compound Source activity
Lecithin Soy beans, egg yolk, liver, milk Concentration
Omega-3-fatty acid Mackerel, herring, tuna, margarine Concentration
Iron Meat, eggs, crustaceans, cereals, carrots Learning
Phenylalanin Milk, eggs, potatoes, rice, soy beans, noodles Learning
Zink Cereals, almonds, oysters, carrots,oranges Memory
Acetycholine Egg yolk, liver, cereals, vegetables Memory
Vitamin B1 Avocados, bananas, nuts Memory
Sulfides Garlic, onions Creativity
Nucleic acids Germinating cereals, vegetables Creativity
folic acid Green leaf vegetables, cheese, meat Creativity
Magnesium Dried fruits, dates, wheat germs Anti-stress
Pectin Apples, quinces Anti-stress
Vitamin B Milk, egg yolk, mushroom, poultry Anti-stress


Taurine

Taurine is present in mussel, crustaceae such as shrimps and oysters and is produced in the liver. It stimulate the production of fat-killing hormones. Oestrogen (female hormone) can inhibit the production of taurine. This is why women easily built a depot of fat as male.
Taurine participates also in the production of bile acids.


Methionine

Methionine is an essential amino acid and is part of adrenalin which is responsible of the release of great amounts of energy.
Methionine is present in fish, egg yolk, meat, poultry, liver, soy beans, cheese and lentils.


Choline

Choline is part of external layers of nerve cells and brain cells. Choline controls the exchange of molecules through the membrane of the cells and helps to burn fat. Low levels of choline result in fat deposit in liver.


Magnesium

It is present in green salad, seeds, nuts, vegetables, cereals, and banana.
Magnesium acts on the fat burning system. Many over weight people have an undersupply of magnesium.
These compounds act all together. In order to have them all at once a well-balanced nutrition of natural origin are necessary together with sufficient physical activity.

Spices which may act on mood

Spices which may act on mood[525]:
Spices Activity Nomenclature
Anise calming, relaxing Pimpinella anisum
Basil reduces fear , nervous sleepless Ocimum basilicum
Savory acts on the intellect and sexual feeling Satureja hortensis
Curry can change mood Several spices
Dill acts calming and relaxing Anethum graveolens
Ginger is a stimulating tonic spice Zingiber officinale
Fennel seed acts calming for the stomach of babies as well Foeniculum vulgare
  for the mood of adults  
Garlic acts stimulating,lowers blood pressure Allium sativum
Caraway acts stimulating Carum carvi
Majoram wars up body and soul and is known Origanum majorana
  as antiaphrodisiac,reducing sexual desire,  
  therefore good for nuns and monks  
Melissa acts calming and relaxing Melissa officinalis
Nutmeg acts stimulating, known as aphrodisiac. Myristica fragans
Clove acts seducing because of its strong Jambosa caryophyllus
  and exotic smell.  
Paprika warming and stimulating, Capsicum annuum
  love desire  
Pepper and chilly stimulates sexual desire Piper nigrum
Pepper mince stimulates the mind and concentration, Mentha piperita
  activating memory, and clears thinking  
Rosemary acts on the brain strength Rosmarinus officinalis
  memory and nerves  
Sage improves the concentration Salvia pratensis
  and learning  
Thyme calms and ,relaxing Thymus vulgaris
Vanilla builds up, aphrodisiac, strong activity Vanilla panifolia
  on emotions, security, soft love  
  and memories of the youth  
Cinnamon Warm, velvet,security, Cassia vera
  in India used to increase love.  
Onions increase concentration Allium cepa.


Chocolate, the new EU Directive 2000/36

The new EU Directive replacing the Directive 73/241/EEC sets the labeling standards for cocoa and chocolate products as follow:
Milk chocolate: At least 25% of total dry cocoa solids, 14% dry milk solids, 2,5% dry non-fat cocoa solids, 3,5% milk fat.
Chocolate: At least 35% total dry cocoa solids, 18% cocoa butter, 14% dry non-fat cocoa solids.
Family milk chocolate: At least 20% total dry cocoa solids, 20% dry milk solids, 2,5% dry non-fat cocoa solids, 5% milk fat, 25% total fat


Cocoa Butter Equivalents (CBE):

Vegetable fats, other than cocoa butter may be added to chocolate not exceeding 5% of the finished product.Addition of fats other than cocoa butter must be cited on the label.
Vegetable fats which are allowed to be added to chocolate are: Illipe,palm oil, sal, shea, kokum gurgi and mango kernel.
The addition of fats other than cocoa butter to chocolate and their products has risen many discussions. According to Mr. Kattenberg from ADM Cocoa liquefied chocolate containing cocoa butter when tempered correctly the resulting product should have a good shelf life. It seems that new technologies of the chocolate industry made the addition of vegetable fats other than cocoa butter unnecessary to prevent blooming. These Fats seem to benefit filled chocolate, ice cream and biscuit products.


Cocoa and chocolate directive 2000/36 EC

The addition of certain vegetable fats other than cocoa butter to chocolate products, up to a maximum of 5 those vegetable fats should be cocoa butter equivalents.

Labelling, presentation and advertising in particular a listing of ingredients of cocoa and chocolate products must comply with Directive 79/112/EEC in order to provide consumers with correct information.

The labelling of the cocoa and chocolate products must indicate the total dry cocoa solids content by including the words: "cocoa solids:... % minimum".

The sales names "chocolate", "milk chocolate" and "couverture chocolate" may be supplemented by information or descriptions relating to quality criteria provided that the products contain:
- in the case of chocolate, not less than 43 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 26 % of cocoa butter,
- in the case ofmilk chocolate, not less than 30 % total dry cocoa solids and not less than 18 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, including not less than 4,5 % milk fat, - in the case of couverture chocolate, not less than 16 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids.

Sales names and definitions of cocoa, chocolate and their products

1. Cocoa butter: designates the fat obtained from cocoa beans or parts of cocoa beans with the following characteristics:

- free fatty acid content (expressed as oleic acid): not more than 1,75 %
- unsaponifiable matter (determined using petroleum ether): not more than 0,5 %, except in the case of press cocoa butter, where it shall not be more than 0,35 %

2.(a) Cocoa powder, cocoa: designate the product obtained by converting into powder cocoa beans which have been cleaned, shelled and roasted, and which contains not less than 20 % cocoa butter, calculated according to the weight of the dry matter, and not more than 9 % water;

(b) Fat-reduced cocoa, fat- reduced cocoa powder: designate cocoa powder containing less than 20 % cocoa butter, calculated according to the weight of the dry matter;

(c) Powdered chocolate, chocolate in powder: designate the product consisting of a mixture of cocoa powder and sugars, containing not less than 32 % cocoa powder;

(d) Drinkind chocolate, sweetened cocoa, sweetened cocoa powder: designate the product consisting of a mixture of cocoa powder and sugars, containing not less than 25 % cocoa powder; these names shall be accompanied by the term "fat-reduced" in the case where the product is fat-reduced as defined at (b).

3. Chocolate
(a) designates the product obtained from cocoa products and sugars which, subject to (b), contains not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;
(b) however, where this name is supplemented by the words:

- "Chocolate Vermicelli" / "flakes": the product presented in the form of granules or flakes must contain not less than 32 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 12 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;

- "couverture": the product must contain not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 31 % cocoa butter and not less than 2,5 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;

- "Gianduja": (or one of the derivatives of the word "gianduja") nut chocolate: the product must be obtained firstly from chocolate having a minimum total dry cocoa solids content of 32 % including a minimum dry non-fat cocoa solids content of 8 %, and secondly from finely ground hazelnuts in such quantities that 100 g of the product contain not less than 20 g and not more than 40 g of hazelnuts. The following may be added:
milk and/or dry milk solids obtained by evaporation, in such proportion that the finished product does not contain more than 5 % dry milk solids;
almonds, hazelnuts and other nut varieties, either whole or broken, in such quantities that, together with the ground hazelnuts, they do not exceed 60 % of the total weight of the product.

4. Milk chocolate:
(a) designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars and milk or milk products, which, subject to (b)contains:

- not less than 25 % total dry cocoa solids,
- not less than 14 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat,
- not less than 2,5 % dry non-fat cocoa solids,
- not less than 3,5 % milk fat,
- not less than 25 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat).

(b) However, where this name is supplemented by the words:

- "Milk Chocolate Vermicelli" / "flakes": the product presented in the form of granules or flakes must contain not less than 20 % total dry cocoa solids, not less than 12 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, and not less than 12 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat),

- Couverture: the product must have a minimum total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat) content of 31 %,

- "Gianduja" (or one of the derivatives of the word "gianduja") nut milk chocolate: the product must be obtained firstly from milk chocolate having a minimum content of 10 % of dry milk solids, obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat and secondly from finely ground hazelnuts, in such quantities that 100 g of the product contain not less than 15 g and not more than 40 g of hazelnuts. Almonds, hazelnuts and other nut varieties may also be added, either whole or broken, in such quantities that, together with the ground hazelnuts, they do not exceed 6% of the total weight of the product.

(c) Where in this name the word "milk" is replaced by:
- "cream": the product must have a minimum milk fat content of 5,5 %,
- "skimmed milk" the product must have a milk fat content not greater than 1 %.
(d) The United Kingdom and Ireland may authorise the use in their territory of the name "milk chocolate" to designate the product referred to in point 5, on condition that the term is accompanied in both cases by an indication of the amount of dry milk solids laid down for each of the two products, in the form "milk solids: ...% minimum.

5. Family milk chocolate
designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars and milk or milk products and which contains:

- not less than 20 % total dry cocoa solids,
- not less than 20 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or fullskimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat,
- not less than 2,5 % dry non-fat cocoa solids,
- not less than 5 % milk fat,
- not less than 25 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat).

6. White chocolate
designates the product obtained from cocoa butter, milk or milk products and sugars which contains not less than 20 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, of which not less than 3,5 % is milk fat.

7. Filled chocolate, chocolate with ... filling, chocolate with ...centre:
designate the filled product, the outer part of which consists of one of the products defined in 3, 4, 5 and 6. The designations do not apply to products, the inside of which consists of bakery products, pastry, biscuit or edible ice.
The outer chocolate portion of products bearing one of these names shall constitute not less than 25 % of the total weight of the product.

Chocolate a la taza:
designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars, and flour or starch from wheat, rice or maize, which contains not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % dry non-fat cocoa solids, and not more than 8 % flour or starch.

9. Chocolate familiar a la taza:
designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars, and flour or starch from wheat, rice or maize, which contains not less than 30 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter and not less than 12 % dry non-fat cocoa solids, and not more than 18 % flour or starch.

10. A chocolate or a praline:
designates the product in single-mouthful size, consisting of:

- filled chocolate, or
- a single chocolate or a combination or a mixture of chocolate within the meaning of the definitions given in 3, 4, 5 or 6 and other edible substances, provided that chocolate constitutes not less than 25 % of the total weight of the product.

The directive 200/36/EC prohibits the addition of animal fats and their preparations not deriving solely from milk to chocolate and related products.

Vegetable fats allowed to be added to chocolate and related products

According to the Directive 2000/36 EEC the vegetable fats which are allowed up to an extend of 5 %, must comply with the following criteria:

(a) they are non-lauric vegetable fats, which are rich in symmetrical monounsaturated triglycerides of the type Palmitic-Oleic-Palmitic, Palmitic-Oleic-Stearic, and Stearic-Oleic-Stearic;

(b) they are miscible in any proportion with cocoa butter, and are compatible with its physical properties (melting point and crystallisation temperature, melting rate, need for tempering phase);

(c) they are obtained only by the processes of refining and/or fractionation, which excludes enzymatic modification of the triglyceride structure.

The following vegetable fats, obtained from the plants listed below, may be used:

Usual name of vegetable fat Scientific name of the plants
1. Illipe, Borneo tallow or Tengkawang Shorea spp
2. Palm-oil Elaeis guineesis
  Elaeis olifera
3. Sal Shorea robusta
4. Shea Butyrospermum parkii
5. Kokum gurki Garcinia indica
6. Mango kernel Mangifera indica
Codex Standard for chocolate and chocolate products (CODEX STAN 87-1981, Rev. 1 - 2003):


Chocolate as functional food

Developments on the confectionery and chocolate sector leads to sugar-free products such as isomalt with addition of green tea, zinc, calcium antioxidants in form of vitamins A, C and E, dietary fibres such as inulin and oligofructose with claims that the active ingredients help protect cells, reinforce the natural defence of the body or stimulate intestinal microflora. Interest is also risen on chewy confectionery with acacia gum, inclusion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in dairy ingredients to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Industry is also looking forward to incorporate phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidyl serine to increase mind function.

These claims are dangerous to public health as they suggest that confectioneries and chocolate are healthy, well balanced foods. The high content of saturated fatty acids from cocoa butter, the high caloric content without sufficient dietary fibres and to much monosaccharides stand for unbalanced foods which should be consumed reluctantly. Chocofillings, snacks and energy bars should not replace the 10 oclock breakfast The small amount of active ingredients are a help for sales and do not improve health of the consumer.

Catechines in chocolate
Chocolate with high content of cacao is rich in catechines which are members of the group of flavonoids. The content of catechines in chocolate is related to the amount of the percentage of cacao of the product.
Bitter chocolate contains 53,3 mg catechines / 100 g.
Milk chocolate contain 15,9 mg/100 g [2746]

Food supplements: Food supplement may be useful in case of stress, depressions, signs of overfatigue, diseases and convalescence.In supermarkets the following articles are sold as food supplements: Beer yeasts, gelee royale, wheat germs, fish oil capsules, energy drinks, Ginseg, multi vitamin capsules, Valerian capsules and others.Remember, they do not work wonders their function is a complement to other main factors.


Organic food:

Organic food is being regarded as free from pesticides, chemicals and additives. It should be better for environment as usual food and helps to preserve nature. It should be free of GMO.
To reduce the number of bacteria in organic food Antibac is used as a natural keeping and preserving compound consisting of natural fruit acids. It works by blocking the vital processes linked with the anabolism of the microbes.The pH value of water is lowered and stabilised, creating an environment which is unsuitable for a number of pathogen microorganisms. Harmless lacto bacillus are not affected.

According to the Reiner Group, which produces Antibac, cut surfaces and breaks on vegetables and other products are sealed and the enzymes are inactivated. Discolouration is reduced and texture of the product is being maintained.


Gelatine

Gelatine is made from bones skin and useless parts from cattle, pigs and nowadays from fish (for non-mammalian special products), through partial hydrolysis of the collagen present in these animal parts which are collected in slaughterhouses, meat-cutting facilities and hide-processing plants.
Gelatine contains important aminoacids:
Glycine..........27%
Proline..........16%
Hydroxyproline...14%


Gelatine as dietary supplement

According to the report of the experts of food chemistry in Germany, gelatine and hydrolysed gelatine have no special physiological properties and have no positive effect on cartilage or joints.
Amino acids resulting from the hydrolysis of gelatine are also available from other foods. The claim " joint lubrication" does not correspond to truth.
The hydrolysis is made with acids or with alkaline.
As BSE cases are getting more frequent in Europe, with main incidence in UK and Portugal gelatine has turned out to be a possible source of infection of CJD disease in all kind of foods which were prepared with gelatin and also drugs using gelatin as coverings for capsules pills and so on. Gelatin was used in human nutrition for many centuries. as a good source of seven out of eight essential aminoacids and was a natural ingredient which was better tolerated as the new chemical modified starches and thickening agents. In the last two decades profit thinking of industry and business has made this natural food to become a menace to public health.

Influenza and probiotic bacteria

The Second European Influenza Conference in Malta 11-14 September 2005 presented the findings of researches related to probiotic bacteria and influenza.

Most probiotic bacteria are promoted for improving gut health. The findings presented at the Conference demonstrate the benefits of probiotic bacteria not only to gut health, but also improve the immune system.

According to findings presented at the European Influenza Conference, the probiotic bacteria are thought to activate certain defence cells in the immune system, particularly the T cell.

This mechanism is supported by the new trial led by Dr. Michael de Vrese at the Federal Researche Centre of Nutrition and Food in Kiel. He observed higher levels of cytotoxic plus T suppressor cells (CD8+) and T helper cells (CD4+) in a subsample of the probiotic group after just two weeks of supplementation. The bacteria which were included in this study include Lactobacillus gasseri PA 16/8, Bifidobacterium longum SP 07/3, and B. bifidum MF 20/5 [2747]

Vaccinations: Vaccinations are key in managing seasonal influenza. In a pandemic vaccines matching the new virus strain can only be developed once it has been isolated at the start of the global outbreak. The WHO estimates that it may take up to six month to develop and market a vaccine that matches the circulating pandemic strain 5. The stockpiling of antivirals has therefore been recommended by the WHO as part of its Pandemic Preparedness Plan.

Antivirals: Antivirals are required that are effective against both influenze A and B, however in a pandemic situuation efficacy against only influenza A will be required. M2 inhibitors, amantadine and rimantadine, and the neuraminidase inhibitors, oseltamivir and zanamivir are available drugs against influenza.

Neuranimidase inhibitors present advantages over M2 inhibitors and are the treatment of choice for seasonal and pandemic influenza.


Chicken soup and therapy of colds

Scientists of the University of NebrasKa Medical Center found that chicken soup contains several ingredients that affect the immune system of the body.
It helps to stop the movement of neutrophils that eat bacteria and cellular debris which are released in great numbers by viral infection like colds. Neutrophil activity can stimulate the release of mucous which may be the cause of the coughs and stuffy nose caused by upper respiratory infections such as colds. Vitamins and other agents in the ingredients could possibly have a biological action.


Effect of global transport on local fauna

[1300] Killer shrimp Dikerogammarus villosus coming from Romania endanger the ecological system of the Rhine. Their origin is the Black Sea and are hidden in the system of cooling water of great container ships.
Dikerogammarus feeds itself from flies, worms and other shrimps. It is being feared that Dikerogammarus will find its way to the great seas in North America menacing there the biological system.
This is an example of effects of excessive global transportation endangering local micro fauna.


Acrylamide

Acrylamide, a potential carcinogen is likely to be formed in a wide rage of foods, specifically starchy foods which are fried or baked.such as potato chips roasted asparagus, banana chips, toasted English muffins, tacco shells, pretzels
The natural occurring amino acid asparagine coupled with a carbonyl source such as reducing sugar like dextrose is a precursor to acrylamide in foods.

Trace amounts of acrylamide can be formed by boiling, significant formation generally requires a processing temperature of 120$^0$C or higher.

Most acrylamide is accumulated during the final stages of baking, grilling or frying processes as the moisture content of the food falls and the surface temperature rises, with the exception of coffee where levels fall considerably at later stages of the roasting process.

Acrylamide seems to be stable in the majority of the affected foods in the majority of the affected foods, with the exception of ground coffee where the acrylamide level declines during storage over months

The limiting precursor in cereals is asparagine while fructose and glucose are more important in potatoes. Other important factors are pH and water content.

According to UN scientists meeting in Rome in February 2005 the major contributing foods to total exposure for most countries were:
Potato chips (60 - 30 per cent )
Potato crisps ( 6 - 46 per cent )
Coffee (13 - 39 per cent )
Pastry and sweet biscuits (10 - 20 per cent )
Bread and toasts (10 - 30 per cent )
Other foods (Less than 10 per cent of exposure)

Acrylamide linked to breast cancer

[1302]
Pelle Thonning Olesen and colleagues 2008 found a positive association between an increased acrylamide haemoglobin level and the development of breast cancer.

Acrylamide had been found to to cause cancer in laboratory rats, in carbohydrate-rich foods. Tobacco smoking also generates substantial amounts of acrylamide.

Despite being a carcinogen in the laboratory, many epidemiological studies have reported that actual exposition to acrylamide in food is too low to be of concern.

Pelle Thonning Olesen concludes in his publication that all previous epidemiological studies have been based on food frequency questionnaires, and that the risk of breast cancer doubles with a tenfold increase in the acrylamide-haemoglobin level. There is a stronger association for oestrogen receptor positive breast cancer.

The authors say that it is uncertain whether breast cancer is instead related to other chemical compounds formed along with acrylamide during the heating of foods and that some of the acrylamide may come from sources other than food.

The Netherlands Cohort Study on diet and cancer

[1303] Janneke Hogervorst and colleagues 2007 increased risks of postmenopausal endometrial and ovarian cancer with increasing dietary acrylamide intake, particularly among never-smokers. Risk of breast cancer was not associated with acrylamide intake.

The HEATOX Study

[1304]
The HEATOX risk characterization concludes that the evidence of acrylamide posing a cancer risk for humans has been strengthened, and that acrylamide is not the only genotoxic compound formed when heating food. Furan, HMF and other compounds have been investigated.

A database of more than 8 carcinogens based on their chemical structure, has been compiled to aid future research. Acrylamide reduction methods for industry and for home are highlighted.
How to reduce acrylamide in baked and fried foods The most effective reduction of acrylamide has been achieved by using the enzyme asparaginase to selectively remove asparagine prior to heating. This process is, however limited to specific products manufactured from liquidised or slurried materials.

Variety selection and plant breeding, controlling growth and storage factors affecting sugar concentration in potatoes, pre-treatment of potato pieces by soaking or blanching and prolonged yeast fermentation time in breadmaking is being studied as possible acrylamide reduction.

Calcium chloride preventing acrylamide formation [1786]
Gokmen and Senyuva found that the formation of acrylamide was reduced by 95% in fried potatoes when dipped for 60 minutes in calcium chloride at room temperature before frying at 170$^{o}C$. According to the authors the Schiff base of asparagines, intermediate of acrylamide, was prevented. Colour and texture of French fries and crisps were not affected.

Calcium chloride was found to be the best choice to reduce acreylamide in potato crisps

[1787]
Shiyi Ou and colleagues 2007 tested the food additives ferulic acid, catechin, calcium chloride, sodium bisulfite, and l-cysteine on inhibition of acrylamide formation. They found that acrylamide formation in fried potato crisps was significantly reduced immersing the potato slices in solutions of l-cysteine and solution of CaCl2. Immerging the potato slices in a solution of 5 g/l of CaCl2 was the best choice because of its low price and the acceptable mouth feel of fried crisps. Industrial blanching at 85$^{o}C$ reduced the formation of acrylamide by 85% when potato slices were immersed in the solution.

L-cysteine and Calcium chloride are promising additives to reduce acrylamide potato chips

[1788]
Frederic Mestdagh and colleagues 2008 found L-cysteine to reduce the acrylamide content in the most effective way, with a reduction of about 92 per cent. L-lysine and glycine were found less effective additives in the study.
Organic acids like citric, acetic, and L-lactic acid reduced the acrylamide content but not as much as L-cysteine or calcium chloride. The acrylamide lowering effect of the organic acids was related to a low pH.

Dipping potatoes in a solution of Calcium chloride was found to inhibit the formation of acrylamide by up to 95% during frying according to the study of Gökmen and Senyuva 2007. [1789]

The inhibition of acrylamide formation of ferulic acid, catechin, calcium chloride, sodium bisulfite and l-cysteine were tested by Shiyi Ou and colleagues 2007 and found l-cysteine the most efficient agent but CaCl${2}$ is most potential. They suggest the immersion of potato slices in CaCl${2}$ solution at 5 g/L to reduced acrylamide formation by more than 85% in fried crisps. [1787]

Reports and statements on acrylamide[1790]
Acrylamide (CH2=CHCONH2) is neurotoxic and carcinogenic in laboratory animals. JECFA (FAO/WHO Joint expert Committee on Food Additives)cautioned in April 2005 that there are uncertainties in its conclusion as the toxicological database is incomplete and recommended that (FAO/WHO, 2005):

The CIAA Confédération des Industries Agro-Alimentaires issued in 2005 guidelines related to successful procedures on reducing acrylamide formation during manufacturing processes.

References
EC (European Commission), 2002. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) on new findings regarding the presence of acrylamide in food. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out131_en.pdf

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2005. Draft Opinion of the Scientific Committee on a harmonised approach for risk assessment of compounds which are both genotoxic and carcinogenic (in consultation process). Available at http://www.efsa.eu.int/science/sc_commitee/sc_consultations/882_en.html

FAO/WHO (Food and Agricultural Organisation/World Health Organisation), 2005. Summary and conclusions of the sixty-forth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), pp. 7-17. Available at http://www.who.int/ipcs/food/jecfa/summaries/en/summary_report_64_final.pdf

Citric acid and glycine and reduction of acrylamide formation [1791]
Professor Don Mottram from the School of Food Biosciences at the University of Reading leaded a study focused on how to suppress the formation of acrylamide without detrimentally affecting flavour formation using citric acid and glycine.

The scientists noted that citric acid limited the generation of volatiles, particularly the alkylpyrazines which are responsible for flavour. Glycine increased the total volatile yield by promoting the formation of certain alkylpyrazines, namely, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, trimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, tetramethylpyrazine, and 2,5-diethyl-3-methylpyrazine. However, the formation of other pyrazines and Strecker aldehydes was suppressed.

To minimise the impact on flavour but still achieve the desired reduction in acrylamide levels, the reseachers propose that the opposing effects of the treatment with citric acid limiting the generation of volatile flavour compounds, in particular the alkylpyrazines, and glycine, which promotes the formation of certain alkylpyrazines but does not suppress the formation of certain Strecker aldehydes.

The combination of the two compounds in 0.39% w/w for each, does not suppress the formation of certain Strecker aldehydes on total volatile yield and may be used to best advantage in reducing acrylamide.

Formation of acrylamide from wheat gluten
The scientific team from the Institute of Food Technology at Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, revealed different acrylamide formation mechanisms describing pyrolytic acrylamide formations in purified wheat gluten and gluten-supplemented wheat bread rolls.

The gluten was dry heated at temperatures ranging from 160 to 240$^{o}C$ for 8 to 12 min and analysed for acrylamide and cinnamic amide. Under these conditions acrylamide could be detected up to 3997 g/kg gluten dry weight. Cinnamic amide was detected and unambiguously identified in the gluten samples, thus confirming the proposed formation of acrylamide from proteins.

The manner in which acrylamide was formed makes the German team's study interesting . After gluten was added to bread roll dough, protein pyrolysis to form acrylamide in the complex food matrix was assessed. In this study the contents of asparagine and reducing sugars were diminished by adding wheat gluten.

In contrast to the expectation with respect to the well-established common formation mechanism of acrylamide, it increased from 53.4 to 63.9 g/kg (+20 per cent), which was in good correlation with the higher proportion of gluten. Cinnamic amide could be found in crusts of bread rolls. The scientists claim that their research provides evidence of pyrolytic formation of acrylamide from wheat gluten. [1792]

CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox [1793] [1794]
The CIAA Acrylamide "Toolbox" provides descriptions of the intervention steps being evaluated by food manufacturers. In some cases the procedures are already being used by food processors, are undergoing testing or are the result of laboratory studies.

The CIAA stresses that some of the tools and parameters of this guide will also be helpful within the context of domestic food preparation and in catering establishments, where stringent control of cooking conditions may be more difficult.

The latest update in December 2007, includes the feasibility of the enzyme asparaginase in production of biscuits on an industrial scale.

The asparginase enzyme products on market are Preventase from DSM obtained from Aspergillus niger and Acrylaway from Novozyme from Aspergillus oryzae they transform asparagine in aspartic acid which cannot form acrylamide. Nutritional value, browning and crispness remain are not affected. Biscuits are being tested, promising a 70 percent of reduction of acrylamide.

Pedreschi and colleagues 2007 report that blanching potato strips at 75$^{o}C$ for 10 min followed by soaking in an 10,000 ASNU/l asparaginase solution at 40 degrees Celsius for 20 minute reduced acrylamide formation after frying by 60 per cent.[1796]

Glycidamide
The update of December 2007 stresses that epoxidation of acrylamide by fatty acid hydroperoxides, which are formed during lipid peroxidation, could be another pathway for the interactions of acrylamide with food constituents. Glycidamide is the genotoxic metabolite of acrylamide. Download the CIAA Acrylamide TOOLBOX Rev 11 December 2007 at:
http://www.ciaa.eu/documents/brochures/toolbox%20rev11%20nov%202007final.pdf

Soaking Frech fries in standing water reduces formation of acrylamide

[1795]
Rachel S Burch and colleagues 2008 investigated simple measures which could be used to reduce acrylamide formation in industrial and home-cooked French fries. The authors found that washing for 30 seconds under running tap water and then soaking in standing water for 30 min or 2 hours raw French fries before cooking led to reductions in acrylamide of up to 48 per cent and the colour was lighter compared with untreated French fries.

The authors stress that standing water removes sugars from the potato and extracts less starch from the surface of the potato than running water. Lower acrylamide levels were found when starch is not removed.

Surface browning as indicator of acrylamide formation

The work of Jackson and Al-Taher focuses on the effects of cooking conditions (e.g. time/temperature) on acrylamide formation in consumer-prepared foods, the use of surface colour (browning) as an indicator of acrylamide levels in some foods, and methods for reducing acrylamide levels in home-prepared foods.

They found that acrylamide levels in cooked food depended greatly on the cooking conditions and the degree of "doneness", as measured by the level of surface browning. Analysis of the surface colour by colorimetry indicated that some components of surface colour ("a" and "L" values) correlated highly with acrylamide levels. This indicates that the degree of surface browning could be used as an indicator of acrylamide formation during cooking. [1797]

Predictive model for acrylamide[1798] Enda Cummins, a researcher at University College Dublin, developed and presented an acrylamide predictive computer model for industrial and home at the Foodsim 2006 in June 15-17 at the University of Naples, Italy.

This model was developed for the production and consumption of chips and crisps in Ireland. For other foods and outside of Ireland the model must be adjusted to take account of the specific amino acids and sugars of each food.

According to Cummins the use of potato cultivars with low sugar levels, blanching, lowering cooking time and temperature reduces acrylamide significantly. Extended frying times above six minutes and above 180$^{o}C$ should be avoided. Soaking and washing were found to be less efficient. The initial selection of cultivars and in the initial levels of glucose and fructose was found by Cummins to be most effective way to reduce the formation ofd acrylamide in processed potato foods.

Predictive results
His model predicts a mean acrylamide level of 317 micrograms per kilogram in fried potatoes, 720 micrograms per kilogram in crisps, and 1073 micrograms per kilogram in home made french fries (industrial washing and blanching processes are not considered in home cooking).
Male consumption patterns of french fries and crisps result in 0.27 micrograms of acrylamide per kilogram of body weight per day, and females slightly less, being far below of the World Health Organisation recommended daily intake (RDI) is one microgram per kilogram of body weight per day.

Researches with green tea and bomboo extract to reduce acrylamide formation in foods

[1799] [1800]
Yu Zhang and Ying Zhang investigated the antioxidant-rich extracts of bamboo leaves (AOB) and extract of green tea (EGT). They found that when both were added in levels of 0,1 micrograms, the reduction rates of formation of acrylamide of 74,4 per cent for the use of AOB and 74,3 per cent for the use of EGT were achieved.

The researchers tested the addition the extracts at 180 degrees Celsius in an oven under low-moisture conditions. The active components of the extracts reducing the acrylamide formation were homoorientin for AOB and epigallocatechin gallate for EGT.

The antioxidants of bamboo leaves had beenstudied before by Zhang. The authors obtained 74,1% and 76,1% reduction of acrylamide in potato crisps and French fries with AOB addition of 0,1% and 0,01% (w/w), respectively and an immersion time of 60 s. According to the authors acrylamide formation in potato-based foods could be reduced significantly with the Extract of antioxidants of bamboo leaves and original crispness and flavour of potato products may stay unaltered.

The authors call for more research on natural antioxidants to reduce the formation of acrylamide.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in grilled, fried or broiled meat and cheese products [1801]

Helen Vlassara and colleagues (2007) found new toxins in grilled meat and cheese. Advanced glycation end products AGEs are a group of compounds formed from the non-enzymatic reaction of reducing sugars with the free amino groups of proteins in grilled, fried or broiled animal products and sterilised or pasteurised meat products and are responsible for desirable tastes and smells of these foods.

These compounds are linked with inflammation, insulin resistance, diabetes, vascular and kidney disease, and Alzheimer's.

According to the authors the kidney function of older people slows down and it might be the cause why the capacity to remove AGEs from the body is reduced. People aged 65 and older were found to have higher AGE levels in their blood as people younger than age 45. AGEs accumulates in the tissues, take over the body's own built-in defences, pushing them toward a state of inflammation leading to disease or early ageing.

N-carboxymethyl-lysine (CML) and methylglyoxal (MG) derivatives are found in blood and are used to measure the body content of AGEs. They correlate with indicators of inflammation and oxidative stress According to the authors, indicators of both AGEs and oxidative stress are directly influenced by the intake of dietary AGEs, independent of age or energy intake. The researchers call for reduced consumption of these oxidants to prevent age-related diseases, especially in an ageing population.

The authors advice to avoid excessive intake of fried, broiled, and grilled foods and call for new methods of cooking to reduce AGE intake, particularly steaming, boiling or making stews, keeping the heat down and maintaining the water content in food.

AGEs and diabetes [1802]
Wautier and Guillausseau in a review in 2001 focuses on the consequences of hyperglycemia on the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), and on the role of AGEs and of their specific receptors (RAGE) in the functional and anatomical alterations of the vascular wall.

The data of this review emphasize the role of AGEs and of the interaction of AGE modified proteins with diabetic mesangial cells in glomerulosclerosis development. (scarring of the kidneys' tiny blood vessels, the glomeruli, the functional units in the kidney that filter urine from the blood). The authors come to the conclusion that AGEs and RAGE play a central role in the development of chronic complications of diabetes.

Flavonoids and reduction of colorectal cancer risk [1803] Flavonoids such as isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and flavanones were assessed in a case-control study concerning colon cancer cases. A significant risk reductions were calculated by lead author Marta Rossi . The highest intake of flavonols was associated with a 46 per cent reduction in the risk of colorectal cancer, compared to people in the lowest intake group. No significant benefit of flavan-3-ols, flavanones, and total flavonoids was observed.

According to Marta Rossi and colleagues, flavonoids may have an important role in explaining the protective effects of vegetables, fruit, and, possibly, tea against cancer. The estimates did not substantially differ for colon and rectal cancers, as well as in strata of sex, age, and body mass index. The findings of this large study provide support for an inverse association of selected classes of flavonoids with colorectal cancer risk.

Several limitations of this study make further studies necessary. Other studies add further support of the five-a-day message for a healthy, balanced diet rich in fruit and vegetables. Blueberries, for instance, are a rich source of anthocyanidins, mainly delphinidin, cyaniding, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin, could stop the growth of liver cancer cells. [1804]

Blueberries [1804]
Blueberries and muscadine grapes are a source of polyphenols antioxidants such as phenolic acids, tannins, flavonols and anthocyanins and pterostilbene which reduces cholesterol. Three cultivars of blueberries ("Briteblue", "Tifblue" and "Powderblue") and four cultivars of muscadine grapes ("Carlos", "Ison", "Noble", and "Supreme") were assessed in a study lead by Weiguang Yi from the University of Georgia.

The inhibition of the blueberry and muscadine grapes extracts on liver cancer cell growth were studied using HepG2 cell cultures.

The greatest inhibitory effects were observed from the anthocyanin fractions. The main anthocyanidins present were delphinidin, cyaniding, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin.


The flavonol and tannin fractions showed intermediate activities.

The authors concluded that blueberries and muscadine grapes may contribute to reduction in liver cancer risk, proposing that incorporating blueberries into the diet could potentially reduce liver cancer risk.

Dynamic high pressure (DHP) technology for juices [1805]
Alternative methods to heat pasteurisation of juices such as pulsed electric fields (PEF), pulsed magnetic fields, pulsed light, carbon dioxide, irradiation and high pressure have been proposed for the cold pasteurization.

PEF is based on the electromechanical instability of the cell membrane. It is not in use due to high costs of these systems.

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) requires a pressure of 350 Mpa for 30 min to achieve a 5 log reduction. This technology is not in use because treatment must be done in charges and is very costly on an industrial scale.

Dynamic high pressure (DHP) technology uses a pump to force a liquid under high pressure and high velocity through a very narrow and adjustable concentric orifice, bringing physical changes in the treated products due to the creation of a sudden pressure drop, very high exit flow velocity and evaporation.

Tahiri, Makhlouf, Paquin and Fliss researched the inactivation of bacteria using DHP. They came to the conclusion that DHP can become an alternative for cold pasteurization of fruit juices.

Non-Thermal preservation processes
Non-thermal processes are food preservation methods which do not use significant temperature increases. Ionizing radiation, pulsed-electrical field pasteurization and ultra high-pressure processing (UHF) are currently in use.

High intensity pulsed electric field (PEF) processing involves the application of pulses of high voltage (typically 20 - 80 kV/cm) to foods placed between 2 electrodes. PEF treatment is conducted at ambient, sub-ambient, or slightly above ambient temperature for less than 1 s, and energy loss due to heating of foods is minimized.

For food quality attributes, PEF technology is considered superior to traditional heat treatment of foods because it avoids or greatly reduces the detrimental changes of the sensory and physical properties of foods (Quass 1997). Although some studies have concluded that PEF preserves the nutritional components of the food, effects of PEF on the chemical and nutritional aspects of foods must be better understood before it is used in food processing.

Processing of apple and orange juices, of milk, liquid eggs and soups have been tested.

Technical drawbacks or limitations of the PEF technology are: Cloudy apple juice healthier than clear one [1806]
Apple juice is treated with enzyme to remove the pectin and starch content in order to avoid cloudiness of the product. 75% of the polyphenol content.of clear apple juice was found by Oszmianski and colleagues to be only 25% of that of cloudy apple juice.

According to the authors of the study the suppression of enzymatic browning conditions and the lack of clarification prevent the loss of polyphenols in cloudy apple juice.

The authors found 250 milligrams of polyphenols per litre in clear juice from Idared apple variety and 1044 milligrams per litre in cloudy juice made from the Champion apple variety. The authors come to the conclusion that health benefits are expected mainly in the case of cloudy apple juice consumption resulting from the high content of procyanidins.

Industrial processed (clear) apple juice and chronic non-specific diarrhoea (CNSD)
According to Hoekstra and colleagues clear and cloudy apple juice differ in their fibre and non-absorbable monosaccharide and oligosaccharide contents. They found that clear apple juice significantly promoted diarrhoea and suggest that fructose, the increased availability of non-absorbable monosaccharides and oligosaccharides as a result of the enzymatic processing of apple pulp is the cause of apple juice induced CNSD in children.Cloudy apple juice did not influence stool frequency and consistency.

In case of toddler diarrhoea Hoekstra recommends that fruit juices, in particular clear apple juice, and other squashes should be limited to restore appetite at meal times.[1808]

Red grapefruits influencing serum lipid and antioxidant levels and cancer-preventive effect [1810]
Shela Gorinstein and colleagues found that fresh red grapefruit contains higher quantities of bioactive compounds and has significantly higher antioxidant potential than blond grapefruit. Diet supplemented with fresh red grapefruit positively influences serum lipid levels of all fractions, especially serum triglycerides and also serum antioxidant activity.

They concluded that the addition of fresh red grapefruit to generally accepted diets could be beneficial for hyperlipidemic, especially hypertriglyceridemic, patients suffering from coronary atherosclerosis.

Kun Gao and colleagues found that naringenin , a citrus flavonoid, stimulates DNA repair following oxidative damage in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells.
They conclude that the cancer-preventive effects of citrus fruits demonstrated in epidemiological studies may be due in part to stimulation of DNA repair by naringin, which by stimulating base excision repair processes may prevent mutagenic changes in prostate cancer cells. [1811]

Inulin and flavonoids from grapefruit [1812]
Zenon Zdunczyk and colleagues found that flavonoid extract from grapefruit used as a single dietary supplement did not display a beneficial influence on cecal metabolism, increased pH, hydration of digesta, and lowered bacterial activity and SCFA concentration.
The authors suggest that the simultaneous intake of inulin and polyphenols could reduce the detrimental effects of the latter on cecal fermentation.

The authors conclude that simultaneous intake of inulin and polyphenols can decrease the detrimental effects of the latter on cecal fermentations.


Arteriosclerosis prevention

Diet rich in green and yellow vegetables [1813]
Michael R. Adams and colleagues from the University of California in Los Angeles determined the effects of a diet rich in green and yellow vegetables on the development of atherosclerosis.

The results of this study indicate that a diet rich in green and yellow vegetables inhibits the development of atherosclerosis and may lead to the reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.

Vegetables contain a variety of micronutrients, such as carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium that are potent antioxidants, and broccoli as a source of sulforaphane , an anti-inflammation compound.

Reduction of risk of hypertension with vegetable protein and cereal fibre [1814]

The World Health Organisation (WHO) advices since 1991 to have five meals rich in fruit and vegetables to lower incidences of heart disease and some cancers.

According to Alvaro Alonso and colleagues fibre and protein intake can be associated with lower levels of blood pressure, but results from prospective cohorts are scarce, and none of them have been conducted outside the US. In a new study the scientists found that risk reduction was more important among men, obese and older individuals. Total or animal protein, total fibre as well as fibre from other sources different from cereal were not associated with the risk of HT.

The authors suggest that the relationship between fibre and insulin resistance could, in turn, affect blood pressure, or that vegetable protein could result in higher serum concentrations of certain amino acids such as L-arginine, L-tryptophan, and tyrosine could reduce hypertension.

Vegetable protein intake was inversely related to blood pressure. This finding is consistent with recommendations that a diet high in vegetable products be part of healthy lifestyle for prevention of high blood pressure and related diseases [1815]

Definition of high blood pressure [1816]
Hypertension = blood pressure higher than 140/90 mm Hg,
Prehypertension = blood pressure 120/80 mmHg to 139/89 mmHg.


Frozen Food Standards

The growth of frozen food is largely due to the performance of frozen potatoes (chips and potato products) which is the largest sector in volume terms, growing 6.9% year-after-year.

Purchasing diagnostics reveal that frozen potatoes' growth is driven by households buying more of the category in 2003.

Other sectors in growth are ready meals and snacks. Ready meals are growing in volume 5.5% year-after-year, driven by retailer own brands and Heinz. Growth comes from price reduction and an increase in the amount bought per occasion. Healthy meals is a fast growing sector within this category although it remains a small player within ready meals.
Frozen snacks has seen strong growth (18.8% year-after-year volume) led by Tesco and Asda own label ranges. McCain's Micro range has also attained good growth in this category.
The traditional sectors such as frozen fish, green vegetables, red meat and pizza, are all in volume decline as consumers buy less.

Canned food

The process of canning was pioneered in the 1790s when a French confectioner, Nicolas Appert, discovered that the application of heat to food in sealed glass bottles preserved the food from deterioration. In about 1806 Appert's principles were successfully trialed by the French Navy on a wide range of foods including meat, vegetables, fruit and even milk.

Based on Appert's methods of food preservation the packaging of food in sealed airtight tin-plated wrought-iron cans was first patented by an Englishman, Peter Durand, in 1810.

Canned foods were greatly favoured by early explorers. Beginning in 1814 canned foods were sent to distant British colonies.

The very earliest cans were "tinned iron canisters", which were very heavy and needed a hammer and chisel to open them! They were also made one at a time, by hand. Today very light materials are employed with Ring-Pulloff system which need no tools to open them.

Dieting fads

Dieting and health trends with low-calorie and nutrient enriched products enjoying greater popularity. Meal replacement drinks, healthy snack bars and bakery products enriched with vitamins and calcium are considered as healthy. On the other hand, food deemed to be unhealthy, such as ice cream, savoury snacks, and cakes and pastries, has seen declining consumption.

It also revealed the growing awareness of prebiotics, a market still in development stage. But while today the European prebiotic market is restricted to a handful of companies (three companies hold 70 per cent of the market share), new entrants are expected as awareness grows and consumers become increasingly interested in gut health.

Closely related to probiotics, prebiotics are carbohydrates thought to stimulate the growth and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the gut. Ingredients that have so far been identified as having such activity include inulin, fructooligosaccharides, resistant starch and the sweetener tagatose.

Probiotics in animal breed
Some bacteria resent good activities in the animal gut. This will be used in animal feed for pork, poultry cattle and pet feed. Spores of Bacillu licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis cause a better digestion and help to control pathogenic bacteria. With these probiotics improved body weight of 9% and a better food conversion of 5% were found.

Probiotics in crops
10 to 60% of nitrogen accumulated in maize, rice, sugar cane and grass are of atmospheric provenience. In the many plants the assimilation is done by symbitic activities of nitrogen bacteria such as Azospirillum spp. and Gluconacetobacter.

Using Azospirillumm spp an increase of 30 percent of yield and a reduction of 40 percent of nitrogen fertilizer could be achieved in sugar cane, maize and oath.

Closely related to probiotics, prebiotics are carbohydrates thought to stimulate the growth and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the gut. Ingredients that have so far been identified as having such activity include inulin, fructooligosaccharides, resistant starch and the sweetener tagatose.

Metabolic changes induced by probiotic bacteria

[1817]
Jeremy K. Nicholson and colleagues 2008 using nutrimetabonomics researche tools found that probiotic strains could alter intestinal bacteria populations, and that this significantly influenced major metabolic pathways. Nestlé strains of Lactobacillus paracasei and Lactobacillus rhamnosus were given to mice whose intestinal microflora had previously been changed to human gut microbes.

The researchers found that the supplementation with the probiotics led to changes in host intestinal microflora and this lead to changes in the metabolism of liver, blood, urine, and faeces, affecting energy, lipid and amino acid. The energy recovery from the diet was modified, with subsequent effects on circulating lipids in theplasma and metabolism of glucose in the liver and bile acids, which are important key in the metabolism of fatty acids.

Stressing the different metabolic effects of the two probiotics in the host, the authors suggest the possibility of giving probiotic combinations according to a person's individual metabolic profile.

Nutrimetabonomics was developed by Sunil Kochhar and colleagues at the Nestlé Research Center (Switzerland) and Imperial College London to correlate metabolic phenotypes with a behavioral phenotype such as an affinity for rich, creamy chocolate. The Method is an offspring of metabonomics, a discipline that uses metabolic profiles of bodily fluids such as blood plasma and urine to understand drug toxicity, pharmacological responsiveness, and other biological events. This method is applied to examine the effects that diet has on metabolism. [1818]

Probiotics in farming
Probiotics in animal breed: Some bacteria resent good activities in the animal gut. This will be used in animal feed for pork, poultry cattle and pet feed. Spores of Bacillu licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis cause a