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Subsections

Food, what is it?


Milk and dairy products

Milk and dairy products are an important source of proteins, calcium and vitamins.They are ideal baby food therefore is this product of great importance.
The production of milk is worldwide concentrating in very few big companies. This increases quality through modern know how destroying, however, the small decentralized factories.

The very big international dairy food producers [1]

  Enterprise Seat of Sales Mio
    the Head US Dollar
1 Nestlé Ch 13.500
2 Kraft (Philip Morris) USA 8.000
3 Dairy Farmers of America USA 6.900
4 Danone F 5.800
5 Friesland Coberco Dairy Food NL 5.500
6 Besnier F 5.100
7 Snow Brand Milk Products J 5.000
8 Campina Melkunie/MKW NL 4.800
9 Bongrain F 4.600
10 Meji Milk Products J 4.000


Milk Calcium[2]

Milk is a natural source of calcium. Unfortunately young people drink less milk and more carbonated drinks increasing a possible undersupply of calcium. The decline in use of dairy products along with the increase of osteosporosis has boosted the fortification of food and beverages with o calcium all over the world [3]. Calcium sources are: But none of these sources have the same high bio availability as milk and their derivates.That is why milk should be carefully protected against pollution and diseases such as BSE.

Bio availability of calcium

One liter skim or full fat milk contains 1.200 mg calcium.About 30% of it is available to humans.
The availability of calcium depends largely of it being soluble.
Mineral water is a good source of calcium being present in soluble form.In dietary supplements the availability of calcium can be differ from case to case.
The bio availability of calcium in vegetables is smaller as from milk.
In milk calcium is linked with other components which avoid reactions as insoluble salts. Daily intake of calcium :
Adults = 800 mg
Infants =1.200 mg
To keep bones strong magnesium as well as calcium and vitamin D are needed.
The ratio of calcium and magnesium is important.Too much calcium and two little magnesium makes blood more apt to clot, leading to heart attack.

The proper ratio is half as much magnesium as calcium.It is believed that old people get only one-fourth as much magnesium as calcium, specifically if they take calcium supplements.
An intake of 1.200 milligrams of calcium per day demands 600 mg of magnesium [2].
A separate supplement of 200 to 300 mg per day seems to be good.Dr. Seelig insists that the daily intake of magnesium should be about 500 milligrams [4].

Food milligram calcium
A glass of skim milk 300
A cup of low fat Yogurt 415
Kale very rich in calcium
Tofu high content of calcium

Daily calcium intake [5]

The Institute of Medicine released a report listing the requirements for daily calcium intake. How much calcium a person needs to maintain good health varies by age group. Recommendations from the report are shown in the following table.

Age group Amount of calcium to consume
  daily, in milligrams (mg)
   
0-6 months 400 mg
6-12 months 600 mg
1-5 years 800 mg
6-10 years 1,200 mg
11-24 years 1,200-1,500 mg
19-50 years 1,000 mg
51-70+ years 1,500 mg

In addition, pregnant and nursing women need between 1,200 and 1,500 mg of calcium daily.


Pollutants in milk and dairy products

Pesticides and aflatoxins in milk have their origin in imported animal feed.
The fat soluble pesticides like polychlorated hydrocarbons can contaminate easily milk, heavy metals are very seldom found in milk because they have low solubility.

All efforts should be made to avoid contamination because milk is used to feed children, dairy products such as cheese or yoghurt are consumed in large scale. Contagious diseases like BSE should therefore be avoided through rigorous epidemiological measures.

Pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides herbicides, hexachlorobenzene ( HCB ) and isomers of hexachloro cyclohexane ( HCH )are used in agriculture or are found on the fields.

Even with low concentration of pesticides in animal feed the milk may be heavily affected because liposoluble pesticides usually store in the body of animals and can be detected in the milk in high level.

Mycotoxines such as aflatoxin B1 may be present in ground peanuts or cotton seeds.The cows changes the aflatoxin B1 to aflatoxin M1.
This is why animal feed should be protected against deterioration. Contaminated or spoiled food should not be given to animals.
Chlorated hydrocarbon such as Polychlorated biphenyl(PCB) were used in the past in transformers, refrigerators, in hydraulic oil and as all round chemicals. Its level in milk has decreased after the use of PCB has been reduced.

Other chlorated hydrocarbons such as polychlorated dibenzodioxine ( PCDD ) and polychlorated dibenzofurane ( PCDF ) are also present in the human milk and in the milk of cows, but not as high as Chlorine hydrocarbons ( HCB, DDT and PCB ).

Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury are of small importance because its concentration in milk is low.


Radioactive pollution of milk

In Europe the nuclear accident of Chernobyl hat caused an considerable increase of radioactivity in milk and milk products in 1986.

The amount of radioactive material which was liberated into the atmosphere was several times the amount liberated by the Hiroschima bomb in 1945. Immediately after the accident due to west bounded winds there were the following radionuclides found in West Europe:

Iodine-131, cesium-134 and cesium-137. There was a small amount of Strontium-90.Strontium, which is even today very high in Brazil nuts of the Amazon region originated from nuclear bomb test in Nevada, USA in the forties. The radioactive pollution was carried through the Stratosphere and came down as fall-out in the rain forest.

These incidents show how carefully radioactivity should be handled.
In milk the nuclides are concentrated in the whey and remain there. That is why whey powder was highly contaminated causing headlines. The contamination with Strontium 90 in butter was low.

In whey powder due to the concentration, radioactivity can increase from 200 Bq/liter to 7.200 Bq/kg. In 1986 500 tons of whey powder were discarded in in Germany having high radioactivity resulting from the concentration of cesium.In cheese the remaining cesium is very little.
After some weeks only cesium -134 and cesium -137 was left.

Low levels of radioactivity is told to increases the efficiency of the DNA repair-system an increases the activity of the immune system[6]. This is not valid for radionuclide in food because they are deposited in bones and organs and with the time this material is being concentrated in the body. Damage of cells are than possible.
Therefore radioactivity in food should be kept as low as possible.


Cheese

The different types of cheese are made from sour milk, separation of the whey and inoculating special bacteria or moulds creating the characteristic flavor of each sort.
The following bacteria and moulds are being used in dairies:


Microorganism used in
Lactic acid bacteria cottage cheese, fresh cheese
Propionic acid bacteria Emmental cheese, Appenzeller cheese
Yellow- and red cultures Münster cheese, Romadur cheese
Pennicillium camemberti (white) Camembert cheese and brie
Pennicillium roqueforti (blue/green) Roquefort, Gorgonzola
   
Some bacteria, such as some kinds of lactic acid bacteria built toxic products such as biogenic amines in cheese. [7]
Biogenic amines found as mg/Kg Cheese
Tyramine Tyramine 86 Camembert
Tryptamine Tyramine 180 Brie
Cadaverine Tyramine 225 Emmentaler
Putrescine Tyramine 72 - 1.416 Cheddar
  Phenylethylamine 2.000 - 4.000 Cheddar
  Histamine up to 2.300 Roquefort
       


Whey

Traditionally, whey was a by-product with a negative value from cheese production. Sport nutrition and functional food market increase the demand of whey protein concentrates and isolates.

Whey protein concentrates

Food industry uses for baking and other uses whey protein powders with 30-40 per cent protein, high amounts of lactose and fat.

Whey protein concentrates

Reducing lactose with ultra-filtration processing the content of protein can be elevated up to 70-80 percent and an increased content of fat.
subsubsectionWhey Protein isolates (WPIs) They contain 90- 96 per cent protein, minimal lactose and almost no fat, and are obtained using ion exchange columns or micro/nanofiltration "cross flow micro filtered process" using high tech ceramic filters. Some vital peptides such as lactoferrin, alpha lactalbumin, immunoglobulins, beta lactoglobin have been removed from whey protein isolates using ion exchange. Nanofiltration, however, retains valuable peptide fractions.

Biogenic amines

Biogenic amines are present in low concentrations in human, animals and plants. They have regulating functions, acting on the nervous system.

Bacteria can produce biogenic amines decarboxilating amino acids in food. Biogenic amines can be produced by Bacillus, Clostridium, Hafnia, Klebsiella, Morganella morganii, Proteus, Lactobacillus such as Lactobacillus buchneri and Lactobacillus delbrueckii in cheese, Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus growing on fish, meat and their products. They are found also in fermented food, like cheese, camembert, wine, beer, sauerkraut and yeast extract.

The concentration of biogenic amines in spoiled food can be toxic.
Biogenic amines of importance are: Histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine. Phenylethylamine is also found in chocolate and acts together with coffeine and theobromine vitalizing. , and spermidine.


Dietary polyamines [8]

Polyamines, such as putrescine, spermine, and spermidine, are synthesized endogenously from ornithine with the enzymes ornithine decarboxylase and S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase. Other source is food and absorption from the products of bacterial metabolism. Polyamines play an important role in regulating cell growth and proliferation. If cellular polyamine synthesis is inhibited, cell growth is stopped or severely retarded. The provision of exogenous polyamines restores the growth of these cells. Most eukaryotic cells have a polyamine transporter system on their cell membrane that facilitates the internalization of exogenous polyamines. This system is highly active in rapidly proliferating cells and is the target of some chemotherapeutics currently under development.

Polyamines are also engaged in the stabilization of negative charges of DNA, RNA transcription, protein synthesis and the regulation of the immune response. Polyamines are found in breast milk and may be important in maturation of infant gut, and a possible supplementation of infant formulas with polyamines is being studied, say Larqué and colleagues 2007.

Programmed cell death (apoptosis) include the activation of endogenous calcium and magnesium dependent endonucleases, leading to fragmentation of the chromosomal DNA which is destabilized in polyamine-depleted cells. [9]

Swedish Food Database contains selected data on polyamine [10]

The Swedish Food Database contains data on polyamine content of selected Swedish dairy products. According to Ali and colleagues 2011, these data suggest that fruits and cheese have the highest content of putrescine. Vegetables and meat products were high in spermidine and spermine, respectively. Highest levels of total polyamides were found in Swedish matured cheese, namely 52.3, 1.2, and 2.6 mg/kg for putrescine, spermidine, and spermine, respectively. Low fat milk had higher Putrescine and spermidine, 1.2 and 1.0 mg/kg, respectively, compared with other types of milk.

The authors calculated the polyamine intake from food in adolescents using the database, and compared these results to a diet fulfilling the Swedish Nutrition Recommendations (SNO). The mean daily polyamine intake was found to be 316 micromol/day, and 541 micromol/day calculated according to SNO. Almost half of the polyamide intake came from fruits The difference between both results was caused by low vegetable intake by the adolescents. This was found by the authors to have caused the difference between both results. The authors stress that the ideal diet according to Swedish nutrition recommendations presents higher results for polyamide than achieved Sweden and reported in Europe. [11]

Toxicology of histamine

Biogene amines cn be particularly dangerous in people taking monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, an older class of antidepressant pill, ecause they can potentially interact with the medication and cause dangerously high blood pressure.

Regulations

In Germany there is a maximum of 200 mg/kg histamine in fish established.In 10 samples the average should be under 100 mg/Kg.

In Switzerland there are 100 mg histamine/Kg fish permitted and a maximum of 500 mg/Kg are established. In wine Switzerland has 10 mg/l a tolerable value of histamine in wine.

Tyramine

Tyramine rises blood pressure and causes headaches. It is formed in rockeford cheddar and cheese with white moulds.

Tyrosine-decarboxylase is build by many bacteria such as Streptococcus of the serological group D ( Enterococcus), many Clostridium, some strains of Escherichia coli and many types of Proteus and some lactic acid bacteria like Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Pediococcus.


Pollutants in milk and dairy products [12]

In Bavaria,(south of Germany) the pollutants in milk and dairy products are being controlled over 25 years by the laboratory muva kempten (Veterinary medical analytical office of Kempten). This laboratory has monitored the organochlor-pesticides, PCB, halogenated solvents and heavy metals.

The results of these analysis made it possible to find the cause and to reduce the contamination. At the moment most of the former pollutants of organochlor-pesticides have fallen below detection level in milk from Bavaria. Only lindan is still increased.
This is an example of handling the environment problems making long terms monitoring of food with the cooperation of the laboratory the agriculture and the industry.

The muva kempten now checks organochlor-pesticides (OCP) polychlorated biphenyles (PCB) dioxines, halogenated solvents, mycotoxines, heavy metals, radionuclides, phtalates, nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon substances, organophosphor- and pyrethroid-pesticides using multi methods of preparation of the material, GC-PND and GS-MS. These methods enables the muva kempten to analyse all kind of food.

One important concern of the laboratory is the contamination of food caused by migration of packing components into the food, such as styrol from polystyrol, dioxines from cardboard, plasticiser, heavy metals, nitrosamines from rubber, and (Bisphenyl-A-diglycidilether) Problems which come from coating of tin cans.
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Organic migrations are detected by GC-MS and HPLC and AAS and inorganic ions migrations with AAS.About 70% of canned food were found to be contaminated with BADGE and BFDGE (Bisphenol-A-diglycidilether) according to the French magazine "test achat".Heavy contamination was found in cans containing fish and foods with high amount of acid like lemon, vinegar or tomatoes.
The European Commission made has completed in early 1999 a study concerning the safety of BADGE. According to this Study there is no danger coming from BADGE. Therefore the Commission rose the maximum allowed amount of BADGE in foods from 20 microgram in one kilogram up to 1 milligram in one kilogram food.This was intended only for tin cans coated with plastics. As there are no limits established for for coatings with clear varnish many countries use this high value also for varnished cans.
The toxicology of BFDGE and the catabolic products of BADGE and BFDGE are still unknown.

Recommendations to reduce BADGE and BFDGE

"test achat" recommends to change from canned food to food in glass packaging. Discarding the immersion brine can further reduce BADGE and BFDGE. Contamination of cleaning and disinfection agents are also possible as contaminants of food. This has to be monitored.

The cooperation between official supervision of food, agriculture and industry has brought good results in research and improvements since repressive rules of supervision had been changed to open discussion and mutual good will of all parts engaged in the long way from farming to the consumer.

Bisphenol A and phthalates in canned or packaged food [13]

Rudel et al. 2011 found that removing bisphenol A (BPA) and DEHP (bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate) from food packaging will significantly decrease exposure for adults and children. Bisphenol A is widely used in the manufacture of polycarbonate and other plastic products and epoxy resin-based food can liners.

The authors measured urinary BPA and phthalate metabolites after diet avoiding canned foods and foods in plastic packaging, compared with usual diet. The authors report that urine levels of BPA and DEHP metabolites decreased significantly during a diet free of canned food and free of plastic packed foods. The authors call for the phase out of the use of bisphenol A and phthalate because of its implication in endocrine disruption.

Contaminants in baby food

In baby food were found for health dangerous phtalate DBP and DEHP.
These contaminants were found in the milk used for these products.

All efforts should be made to reduce or even to avoid the possibility of contamination of the milk on its origin.


More safety for food

The French President Jacques Chirac after the latest affairs of food poisoning has suggested the creation of an international board for food security. The board should contain scientist of high reputation. Chirac spoke with US president Bill Clinton which assured the cooperation from US.

New bacterology tools for enhanced food safety

New DNA tools developed by the Agence Fransaise de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, together with other French food laboratories have demonstrated that dominant bacterial population of fresh milk was Lactobacillus lactis. This bacterium is commonly used as a starter culture in dairy. It is not harmful. After 24 hours of refrigeration at 4° psychotrofic bacteria such as Listeria spp and Aeromonas hydrophila emerge. These psichotrofic bacteria are life threatening in cheese products.

DNA using temporal gel electrophoresis TTGE and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Bacterial identification was facilitated by comparision with a bacterial reference database which had been established with DNA fragments of pure bacterial strains.

The results contribute to the knowledge on the bacterial flora of raw milk samples and also describe the consequences of a simple process, milk refrigeration, on the quality of dairy products and its impact on health.[14]

Calcium supplementation reduces severe preeclamptic complications [15]

J. Villar and colleagues in a study of the UN Development Programme found no change in preeclampsia rates in women supplemented with calcium, but did find a decrease in the rate of severe preeclamptic complications.

Small changes in nutritional patters may increase ischemic heart disease risk [16]

Il Suh and colleages found in a study published in 2001 that in China dietary fat intake increased from 15.9% of energy in 1982 to 21.1% in 1990; ischemic heart disease incidence and mortality also increased.
Mortality from ischemic heart disease among Koreans has increased 5- to 6-fold during the past decade. the average fat intake of Koreans increased during the same period: from 14% of energy in 1986 to 19% of energy in 1997. This increased dietary intake may affect the incidence of ischemic heart disease.
The authors of the study conclude that in a population with a relatively low fat intake, a moderate increase in total fat intake may be a risk factor for ischemic heart disease.


Enzymes

Enzymes are active substances which are produced by living organismn which may act on chemical reactions in living cells or outside. Enzymes are proteines with low molecular active group with strong binding called prostetic group or with weak binding and easy to split off group called coenzyme
Examples of enzymes are lipases (enzymes which split fats), proteases (enzymes which split proteines)
Enzymes are used in industrial technology and in colorimetrical methodes for the determination of specific substances in foodstuffs.

Vitamins

Vitamins, such as beta-carotene acting as an antioxidant and indirect source of vitamin A give can supplement foods turning color yellow to red (Lucarotin 10 CWD G/R from BASF, red provitamin A).
Supplemented antioxidant drinks are also labeled as A-C-E drinks.

Vitamin A deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness in children and is a risk of severe infections disease, heart disease, skin cancer, prostate cancer, and arthritis. Plant foods may contain provitamin A pigments such as alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin that ore converted to vitamin A by the body.

Globally, it is estimated that 140-250 million children under five years of age are affected by vitamin A deficiency. These children suffer a dramatically increased risk of death, blindness and illness, especially from measles and diarrhoea. The WHO calls for a combination of breast feeding, dietary improvement, food fortification, and supplementation. [17]

Harvest Plus and Maize biofortification [18]

While many micronutrients are available from fruits, vegetables, and animal products, most of the poor are unable to grow or buy these micronutrient-rich foods. Their diets are characterized by high intakes of staple food crops (such as maize, wheat, and rice) but low consumption of micronutrient-rich foods such as fruits, vegetables, and animal and fish products. By providing a regular daily dose of vitamins and minerals, biofortified staple crops do not need to provide the entire recommended daily allowance (RDA) of micronutrients, but they can be effective in reducing hidden hunger as part of a strategy that includes dietary diversification, supplementation, and commercial fortification, among others.

HarvestPlus focuses on three critical micronutrients that are recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as most limiting in diets: iron, zinc, and vitamin A. HarvestPlus envisions that in fifteen years, millions of people suffering from micronutrient malnutrition will be eating new biofortified crop varieties, such as orange sweet potato rich in vitamin A, orange maize and rice with increased zinc.

Biofortification [19]

Biofortification is a method of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value of staple crops. This can be done either through conventional selective breeding, or through genetic engineering. Biofortification differs from ordinary fortification because it focuses on making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing, rather than having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed.

Selective breeding

Using this method, plant breeders search seed or germplasm banks for existing varieties of crops which are naturally high in nutrients. They then crossbreed these high-nutrient varieties with high-yielding varieties of crops, to provide a seed with high yields and increased nutritional value. This method is quicker, cheaper, and less controversial than genetically engineering crops. For example, HarvestPlus primarily use conventional breeding techniques to develop biofortified crops.

Genetic modification

Golden rice is an example of a GM crop developed for its nutritional value. Golden rice contains genes from the soil bacterium Erwinia and either maize or daffodil plants, and contains increased levels of beta-carotene which can be converted by the body into vitamin A. This can help alleviate symptoms of vitamin A deficiency.

Here are some studies concerning improvement of micronutrients in staple foods.

Provitamin A biofortification of maize using crtRB1 alleles [20]

New breedings are focused on biofortification to improve the dietary vitamin A status in developing world. Yan and colleagues 2010, studying the genetic code of maize (Zea mays L.), report that the gene encoding beta-carotene hydroxylase 1 (crtRB1) associated with beta-carotene which may increase the concentration of provitamin A in maize kernel 18 times compared with standard maize. Alleles of crtRB1 are being introgressed via inexpensive PCR marker-assisted selection into tropical maize. The researchers avoided to introduce alien genes in maize. They use the natural variation of the crtRB1 gerne within the same plant increasing the production of provitamin A and reducing its transformation to other, not biologic active chemical structures. Davis and colleagues 2008 studying the biologic activity of other carotenoids report that twice the molar amount of beta-cryptoxanthin was as efficacious as beta-carotene. [21]

Biofortification of staple food crops [22]

Nestel and collegues 2010 highlights the progress which has been made to control micronutrient deficiencies through supplementation and food fortification. The authors stress that biofortification is being supported by predictive cost-benefit analyses, however additional public work is needed to induce producers and consumers to accept biofortified crops. Activities, such as the good seed systems, the development of markets and products, and demand creation may be helpful to achieve this goal.

Good seeds is supported by Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation. It helps to create new varieties of seeds and make improved seeds much more accessible in Africa, especially to rural farmers. [23]

Genes related to carotenogenesis and heat resistance in maize [24]

Li and colleagues 2008 studied the carotenoid expression in maize. The authors report that maize endosperm carotenoid accumulation requires PSY1 expression, but this was not related to PSY2 or PSY3.

Better understanding of the timing of PSY1 transcript critical information allowed to choose breeding alleles. The authors also found that PSY1 is required for carotenogenesis in the dark and for heat stress tolerance. Leaf carotenogenesis was shown to require photoregulation of PSY2 plus nonphotoregulatiing PSY1 expression.

Natural genetic variations used for biofortification of maize [25]

Harjes and colleagues 2008 describe the variation at the lycopene epsilon cyclase (lcyE) locus which alters the two branches of the pathway of the alpha-carotene versus beta-carotene. Four natural lcyE polymorphisms could lead to a threefold difference in provitamin A compounds. The best suited lcyE alleles may now be selected using inexpensive molecular markers developing maize with higher provitamin A levels

Vitamin A reduction of inflammation [26]

Kurt Long from Harvard School of Public Health aand colleagues studied the effect of vitamin A (retinol) supplements on levels of the molecule, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), which is associated with a state of increased inflammation and is also involved in the pathogen-specific mucosal immune response.

Children who received the vitamin A supplement were found to have reduced fecal concentrations of MCP-1 compared with children in the placebo group.

The supplementation also reduced MCP-1 levels in children with infections, like the bacteria Escherichia coli or the human roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides.

The authors conclude that vitamin A has an anti-inflammatory effect in the gastrointestinal tract by reducing MCP-1 concentrations.

Retinol

Retinol is the dietary form of vitamin A. It is fat soluble and is found mainly in fish liver oils, liver, egg yolks, butter, and cream. Retinol is ingested in a precursor form; animal sources are milk and eggs in form of retinyl esters.

Green leafy and yellow vegetables such as spinach and carrots contain beta-carotene and other provitamin carotenoids, which are converted to retinal in the mucosal cells of the small intestine. Retinal is reduced to retinol, then esterified as retinyl palmitat. Most of the body's vitamin A is stored in the liver as retinyl palmitate. It is released into the circulation as retinol Hydrolysis of retinyl esters results in retinol while pro-vitamin A carotenoids can be cleaved to produce retinal which can be reduced to retinol.

Biologic equivalents

Biologic equivalents, for diets with different proportions of retinol and beta-carotene, are as follows: 1 USP U equals 1 IU; 1 IU equals 0.3 microg of retinol; 1 microg of beta-carotene equals 0.167 microg of retinol.

Other provitamin carotenoids are half as active as beta-carotene, because they have only one un-substituted font beta end group.

Beta-cryptoxanthin

Beta-cryptoxanthin can be found in many vegetables and fruits, mainly in papaya, mango, peaches, oranges, tangerines, bell peppers, corn and watermelon. Beta-cryptoxanthin is also found in some yellow coloured animal products such as egg yolk and butter, and is told to be the main source of provitamin A.

Production of beta-cryptoxanthin [27]

According O. Serrato-Joya from the Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering at the Technological Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, beta-cryptoxanthin has been neglected because most of the information were focused on b-carotene alone. This was due to the lack of suitable analytical techniques, and alternative viable processes for production.

O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues describe a process producing beta cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.

O. Serrato-Joya and colleagues from the Technology Institute of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico, describe a process producing beta-cryptoxanthin additives, as supplement in food formulation, thus assisting vitamin A deficiency prevention. The process uses fermentation technology of Flavobacterium lutescens ITCB008, attaining 770 mg of beta-cryptoxanthin/kg biomass in dry weight in 28 hours with a purity of 95% of the total carotinoid content. This process offers higher yields in less time compared with similar carotinoids production techniques.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids

The eicosapentaen acid and docosahexaen acid are essential fatty acids.They are available only in form of fatty fish like mackerel, herring , salmon . An undersupply of omega-3 PUFA is therefore possible and the search for this essential fatty acids in plants and microorganism is being started. Microencapsulated omega-3 fatty acids are used in healthy diets and in prevention of cardiovascular diseases, supplement bakery products,pasta, breakfast cereals, ready-made meals, soups,dairy products and baby food.
Microencapsulated omega-3 high unsaturated fatty acids have neutral taste, without smell and are protected from oxidation.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids help to prevent cardiovascular diseases, hypertonia, Diabetes mellitus. They also act against inflammation and allergic diseases like psoriasis.
Omega-3 PUFA are important for neurophysiological functions and brain and vision development of newborn.The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of depressions is being studied.


Classification of omega-3 fatty acids

The classification of omega-3 PUFA regards:
1.- The number of C-atoms of the molecule,
2.- The number of unsaturated links,
3.- The position of the first double link in relation to the methyl end of the fatty acid.
The structure of omega-6 PUFA is given below as they are often seen in relation with omega-3 PUFA:
Image Omega6
Most important omega-6 PUFA are: linoleic acid, gama- linolenic acid, dihomo-gama-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid.
Structure of omega-3 PUFA:
Image Omega3
Most important omega-3 PUFA are: alfa- linolenic acid (C18:3), eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA, and docosahexaen acid (C22:6) DHA,
Alfa linolenic acid can be changed to EPA only up to 15% in human physiology and only 4% can be change to DHA That is why about 50 g daily of rapeseed oil can substitute only 50 to 100 g fat fish in a week.
The transformation rate depends on the type of the nutrition. A high intake of linoleic acid and saturated fatty acids in relation to alfa-linolenic acid can strongly reduce synthesis of omega-3 fatty acids.

Alfa-Linolenic acid is available in green leaf vegetables,nuts, and some vegetable oils such as rapeseed oil, soya oil, wheat germ oil and walnut oil.

Linseed is a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, being 40 to 60% alfa- linolenic from total oil. Linseed has therefore found its place in baking industry with 6 - 8% from dry weight in all types of bread.Linseed can also be used as animal feed to produce alfa- linolenic enriched foods like Eggs, butter, cheese and meat.

Feeding animals with linseed or linseed oil an increase of alfa- linolenic fatty acid is achieved.Feeding them with fish oil or seaweeds enriched with omega-3 fatty acids leads to an increase of DHA.


Eicosanpentaen acid (C20:5) EPA

Phytoplankton is the nutrition of fish of cold water and is the source of EPA and DHA (DHA = docosahexaen acid). Fish farming of eel, trout and salmon may produce a fish with reduced omega-3 fatty acids because of different nutrition. That is why fish from natural sources are of superior quality compared with fish from farms.

Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA are being produced microencapsulated using carbohydrates or protein basis such as maltodextrin, beta- cyclodextrin, egg white, gelatine or caseinate as covering film. In this way they can be added to beverages like orange juice.

Researches are being made to find other sources of omega-3.PUFA using single cells such as Crypthecodinum cohnii ( Dinoflagellata), Mortierella elongata (fungus), Schizochrytium (Microalgae).

The DART Study[28] and the Lyon Diet Heart-Study [29] have demonstrated that omega-3 fatty acids have a protective activity against cardiac infarct using 200-400 g fat saltwater fish/week, or 3 times 0,5g/day fish oil and a diet rich in fruits and vegetables and little amount of meat and milk products.

Beginning with 1800 with the industrial era the nutrition changed. Total fat, saturated fats and omega-6 fatty acids increased rapidly and starting at 1930 trans-fatty acids as a result from hydration increased the unhealthy side, meanwhile healthy omega-3 fatty acids decreased constantly beginning with 1900.

According to DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung ) the intake of fat for an adult should be reduced to 30 to 35%. essential fatty acids should be 3,5% of total energy and should be distributed between 3% omega-6 and 0,5% omega-3 fatty acids. The quotient between the two should be 5:1. The amount of omega-3 fatty acids should be approximately 1 g/day.

European estimates indicate that only Portugal and Spain have an intake over 1 g/d. Germany has an undersupply of omega-3 fatty acids of only 1/3 of the necessary daily intake. Netherlands despite being known for herring fishery has an intake of only 1/5 of the necessary daily amount.

Target group for food enriched with omega-3 fatty acids should be early or newborn, pregnant women, nursing mothers and persons with cardiovascular diseases.

WHO/FAO fat and fatty acids intake recommendations [30]

The Food and Agriculture Organization/ World Health Organization issued a recommendation on fats and oils intake in 1994. A new update and new recommendations followed. Three articles summarise the actual knowledge on fatty acids in human nutrition:

Update of the 1994 WHO/FAO fat and fatty acids intake recommendations for children [31]

Uauy and Dangour 2009 summarize the highlights of the update of the WHO/FAO recommendations:
During the first 6 months of life, dietary total fat should contribute 40-60%E (% of total energy) to cover the energy needed for growth and the fat required for tissue deposition.

From age 6 months to 3 years, fat intake should be reduced gradually, depending on the physical activity of the child, to approximately 30-35%energy, which is in line with the upper adult acceptable range. In industrialised countries a dietary fat intake of 30%energy is recommended to be adequate for normal growth and development of healthy children, provided that the diet supplies adequate energy and essential nutrients. The proposed ranges are slightly lower than the ranges of the report of 1994, aiming to control the obesity epidemic.

For children over 2 years of age, saturated fat intake in the diet should be below 10%E with special attention to limit those with chain lengths of C12, C14 and C16. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids should contribute 5-15%E whereby the ratio between omega 6 and omega 3 should lie between 5:1 and 10:1. The rest of the fat derived energy can come from mono-unsaturated fatty acids. Use of low priced hydrogenated fats to increase shelf life of complementary foods and other products is discouraged due to possible long-term adverse effects of this type of fat.

Dietary fat and coronary heart disease

[32]
Skeaff and Miller 2009 assessed the relation between dietary fat and risk of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD). The study presents evidence that diets low in SFA reduced total cholesterol and should therefore reduce the risk of CHD. Trans fatty acids were strongly and significantly associated with CHD mortality and CHD events. Monounsaturated fatty acids were not significantly associated with CHD mortality or events. Polyunsaturated fatty acids were strongly and significantly associated with CHD mortality, but not with CHD events. n-3 LCPUFA or fish consumption were strongly associated with CHD mortality, but not with CHD events.
The authors concluded that CHD risk is reduced when PUFA replaces SFA.

Inconclusive evidence that dietary fat intake effects weight or diabetes [33]

Melanson and colleagues 2009 found that actual studies have failed to find a consistent relationship between total fat and saturated fat intake and body weight or diabetes. They also found insufficient evidence of any association between total fat intake and any type of fat, including trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, both found in dairy products, and risk of diabetes.

Unilever suggestions to meet the fatty acid recommendations [34]

According to Unilever the current recommendations on essential fatty acid intake are around 4% of energy for linoleic acid (omega-6) and 0.25% for alpha linolenic acid (omega-3). The new FAO/WHO recommendations could go up to 10% of energy for linoleic and 2% for alpha linolenic acid. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, an omega-3), now considered an essential fatty acid will also be included in these recommendations.

Unilever stresses the difficulty to meet these recommendations, because adding more of these fats and oil the calories count exceeds the energy recommendations The company suggests the production of ready to eat products in which some of the carbohydrates are replaced by the essential fatty acids, or replacing saturated fats with monounsaturated fatty acids in margarines, mayonnaise and dressings.
To achieve the goals the company calls joint efforts between the food industry, governments, NGOs and other stakeholders for increased awareness of the consumer in relation to health issues using crisp and clear claims.

Recommendations to eat more fish or take fish oil capsules should be avoided [35]

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, advices to increase intake of fatty fish and the actual intake of 100 mg/d of omega-3 fish oils up to 1000 mg (2 servings of oily fish) per week for prevention of chronic disease.

Amounts of 250 mg/d to as high as 1000 mg/d are suggested for secondary prevention of coronary artery disease, and amounts of 2000-4000 mg/d are recommended for the management of elevated triglyceride levels.

Jenkins, however, stresses that evidence for health benefits from eating more servings of oily fish is not conclusive, and must should to be seen to increase worldwide depletion of fish stocks.

The authors recommend not to propagate increase of intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids through fish consumption until alternative sources of omega-3 fatty acids from plants, algae, or yeast become more available. Evidences of benefits of fish oil for primary prevention of CVD cannot be supported for peoples eating a healthy lifestyle, eating a heart-healthy diet, exercising, and having a healthy body weight. Increasing demand of fish are depleting the fish population. Aquaculture increase the problem, because these fishes are fed with fish meal.

The American Heart Association (AHA), according to Dr. Penny M. Kris-Etherton, still stands by its recommendation to consume two servings of fatty fish fish per week to prevent cardiovascular diseases.

The Prevenzione trial is cited to have 15% benefit in the outcome of all-cause mortality, nonfatal miocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke. documented benefits that included a 45% reduction in sudden death. Heart and brain benefits from omega-3 fatty-acid consumption reports include a decrease in age-related memory loss and Alzheimer's disease. [36] However, the DART-2 showed that men with angina who were advised to consume fish oil had an increased risk of cardiac death.

Very low intakes of saturated fats may increased risk of stroke [37]

Saturated fat intakes are known to rise blood cholesterol levels, increasing the risk of heart disease. A study of Yamagishi and colleagues 2010 suggests that other pathways as found in ischemic stroke may be implicated in ischemic stroke.

The inverse association of saturated fats with overall stroke mortality was especially strong for intraparenchymal hemorrhage and ischemic stroke. The study also states that a reduction of intake of saturated fatty acids, together with increased polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) resulted in an additional increase in stroke mortality.

The authors speculate that in large vessels saturated fats can increase the risks of atherosclerotic plaques. However, in small vessels low saturated fatty acids levels may lead to angionecrosis, reduction of smooth muscles cells and increased fragility of vascular walls.

The study is part of the ongoing Japan Collaborative Cohort Study for Evolution of Cancer Risk (JACC Study). The study included a follow up of 14.1 years, and included intraparenchymal and subarachnoid hemorrhages and ischemic stroke as well as heart diseases such as ischemic heart disease, cardiac arrest, and heart failure.

The study says that an intake below 18 g of fatty acids/day increase the stroke risk by 20%, a diet with less than 11g/day increased the stroke risk by 66%.

Following this study the recommendations of the American Heart Association of a maximum of 16g per day of saturated fatty acids must be revised. The authors, however, say that on the other hand, an increase of saturated fatty acids in the diet might rise the risk on ischemic heart disease, and more studies are needed before public recommendations should be changed.

Biodiesel byproduct as omega-3 EPA fortified food [38]

In three to four years foods omega-3 fatty acid EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) fortified using byproduct of biodiesel will be on market depending on process optimization, yield of EPA and FDA approval.

According to Zhiyou Wen and colleagues crude glycerol, one of the major byproducts of the biodiesel industry, added to yeast extract and submitted to the activity of the mould Pythium irregulare may resulte in biomass which is rich in omega-3 fatty acid EPA.

To increase EPA content flaxseed oil and soybean oil was added to the mould culture. The mould elongated the shorter chains of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, into EPA and other longer chain fatty acids. The authors report a yield of glycerol-derived fungal biomass of 40 per cent carbohydrate, 15 per cent lipid, and 36 per cent protein.

The authors conclude that biodiesel-derived crude glycerol may be used for the production of EPA fortified food or feed using the mould Pythium irregulare, however, yields are low, compared with other procedure using microalgae, such as diatom.


The mould Pythium irregulare is a plant pathogen [39]

Pythium irregulare root rot and blackleg of geranium is a mefenoxam insensitivity re-emerging disease. The fungus is also commonly isolated from poinsettia, chrysanthemum, snapdragon, impatiens, and lavender. It is also known as downy mildew. Blight, damping off, root and other rots.

Diet and Angina Randomized Trial (DART)and DART 2 Trial [40]

Burr and colleagues found in successive trials (DART) and (DART 2) conflicting results examining the effect of an increased intake of fatty fish, or the use of fish oil supplements, in reducing mortality in men with heart disease. The Diet and Reinfarction Trial (DART) [41] reduced mortality by 29% in men recovering from acute myocardial infarction taking fish oil capsules or eating fatty fish.

The Diet and Angina Randomized Trial (DART 2) [42]found that eating fatty fish or taking fish oil capsules did not reduce mortality, and increased the risk of cardiac and sudden death in men with angina. Burr and colleagues suggest that different results of both trials are due to different actions of n-3 fatty acids in acute and chronic conditions, together with different effects of eating fish and taking fish oil capsules.

Improved absorption of omega-3 fatty acids by pre-emulsification

Plummer and colleagues (2007) studying the absorption of omega-3 fatty acid, found that pre-emulsifying a blend of a standardized oil increases significantly the postprandial plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) and the C18:3 (n-6), C18:3(n-3), C20:5(n-3) and C22:6 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) levels. C16:0 and C18:0 saturated fatty acids, the C18:1 (n-9) monounsaturated fatty acid and the C18:2 PUFA were not significantly changed, compared with a non-emulsified oil group.

The authors conclude that the emulsification of an oil mixture prior to ingestion increases the absorption of longer chain more highly unsaturated fatty acids (especially eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) but does not affect absorption of shorter chain less saturated fatty acids, and suggest that pre-emulsification of fish oils may be a useful means of boosting absorption of these beneficial fatty acids.
This study may lead to improved fish oil supplementation.


Riboflavin

is used for food coloring. It has yellow color.Riboflavin is vitamin B 12 and is therefore a safe color.

Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals are compounds which normally occur in the body and have beneficial effects on health. As they often do not occur in natural foods they have to be released by food authorities of each country or handled as drugs.

SAMe ( S-adenosylmethionine ) enhances according to BASF well being.
5-m-THF (5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid )reduces according to BASF the risk of heart disease.These nutraceuticals were already launched in USA.


Flavonoids and allergy [43]

Satomi Yano and colleagues from Kyushu University found that diet rich in plant flavonoid such as apigenin (4', 5, 7,-trihydroxyflavone) from herbs, fruits and vegetables can reduce serum IgE and inflammatory cytokines such as RANTES (Regulated upon Activation Normal T cell Expressed and Secreted) and sTNFRI (tumor necrosis factor receptor I) and could protect and/or reduce the occurrence of asthma and other allergies associated with the immunoglobulin E (IgE).

The authors found that apigenin-rich foods, such as celery and parsley are often associated with adverse food reactions. Therefore they used a diet supplemented with apigenin. This diet reduced immune and inflammatory markers, such as IgE, IgG, IgM, IgA, and cytokine expression in mice significantly.

Other foods rich in apigenin are apples, beans, broccoli, cherries, grapes, leeks, onions, and tomatoes, as well as plant-derived beverages like tea and wine.

Apigenin and prostate tumor [44]

Previous research into flavonoids, and particularly apignenin, has focused on the potential anti-cancer properties of the compounds.

Increased intake of fruits and vegetables may be associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer.
Apigenin, has shown remarkable anti-proliferative effects against various malignant cell lines like prostate cancer , slowing prostate tumour growth in mice.

A study presented by Sanjeev Shukla relates evidence of the in vitro and in vivo growth inhibitory effects of apigenin on tumour cells.


Algae[45]

There are up to 30000 types of algae which are being used in the production of drugs, cosmetics, thickening agent for soft cheese, puddings, ice cream and sauces, as animal feed, and fertilizer.

Algae produce organic compounds and oxygen using carbonic dioxide and solar energy. Microscopic algae are responsible for the major part of the photosynthesis in the sea.
Japan has a great consumption of algae such as:


Ao-nori

,Awo-nori algae whose leaves are used as sushis(which are made of rice and other ingredients wrapped up in seaweed leaves),flakes for salads, roasted as spice. They are rich on minerals, iron and vitamins.
Porphyre tenera is an alga known as nori.


Kelp

or Green Nori is generally used as thickening agent, alga meal, as spice. It is rich on iron,potassium, magnesium and vitamins.


Green laver

,Sea lettuce(Ulva lactuca)is used as flakes and grind for salads, snacks and cookies.It is rich on iron,proteins,minerals and vitamins.
Alga composition:
Humidity, as plant: 80 to 90%
Humidity,dry : 10 to 20%
Carbohydrates: 50%
Minerals : 7 to 38% from dry weight
Proteins : 8% in the Kombu-weed and 35% in the Nori-leaves
Fat : 1 to 2%
Algae are rich on cellulose being therefore partially not digested when used in human nutrition.[46]

Minerals found in algae

Iron, iodine, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus and zinc.

Trace elements found in algae

Aluminum, chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel and titanium.

vitamins found in sea weeds

Vitamin A, B1, B2, B5, C, folic acid, niacin in fresh algae.
The pro-vitamin A (beta-carotin) is present in very high concentration in the variety Dulce and 50.0000 i.U.in 100g of Nori.

It is important as natural sources of alfa-tocopherols. Industry is making researches to substitue the synthetic provitamin A with natural pro-vitamin A from algae.
The green seaweed Dunaliella salina is very rich in beta-carotin.

Arame ( Eisenia bicyclis)is rich in potassium, calcium, trace elements in particular iodine and vitamins.
Different types of Laminarias which are brown algae and known as Kombu are very rich in iodine.

Carrageen is used as thickening agent in numerous foods. It is being obtained from the seaweed Chondrus crispus
Dulse(Palmaria palmata) is being used in the production of chips and other foods.

It is rich in proteins, minerals, trace elements and vitamins. In human medicine is dulse used against anemia during pregnancy, against problems with the stomach and intestines and is known to act against worms
Hijiki (Hizikia) has ten times the amount of calcium of milk. It is used against goitre because of its iodine.
   
Green algae,Chlorophyceae  
Ao-Nori, Awo-Nori Porphyra tenera
Green Nori, Sea Grass Enteromorpha intestinalis
Sea lettuce, green laver Ulva lactuca
Thongweed, Buttonweed, Sea Haricots, Sea Spaghetti Himanthalia elongata
   
Brown algae, Phaeophyceae  
Arame Eisenia bicyclis
Hijiki, Hizikia  
Kombu Laminaria japonica
Wakame Undaria pinnatifida
Forest kelp, Cuvie, May-weed, Sea-rods Laminaria hyperborea
   
Red algae, Rhodophyceae  
Agar-Agar Thickening agent
Dulse, Shell Dulse, Sea Grass Palmaria palmata
Irisch Moos,Jelli Moss, Carrageen, Carrageen Moss Chondrus crispus
Nori, Laver Porphyra laciniata
Nori, Laver, Purple Laver, Sloke Porphyra umbilicalis

Mannitol: Is a sugar which is being won from brown algae such as Kombu algae (Laminaria digitata with up to 16% of manitol). It has a sweetness equivalent of 60% of sugar.

Kelp was used as fertilizer in the 12. century. In the 17. century kelp was used in the production of sodium hydroxide in manufacturing of glass. The potassium of kelp was used to make gunpowder in World War I and II.
  Alaria Laminaria Laminaria Himanthalia Palmaria
  esculenta saccharina digitata elongata palmata
Protein 15% 9 11 9 18
Fat 1% 0,5 1 0,5 2
Carbohydrates 45% 60 45 60 48
Vitamin C 300ppm 15 15 2.000 200
Calcium 10.000ppm 9.000 13.000 9.000 5.000
Iodine 170ppm 2.000 2.500 2.000 300
Iron 100ppm 30 60 30 200
Magnesium 9.000ppm 6.000 7.000 6.000 3.000
Manganese 1ppm 10 8 8 100
Sodium 4,5% 3 3 3 2
  Alaria Laminaria Laminaria Himanthalia Palmaria
  esculenta saccharina digitata elongata palmata


  Chondrus Porphyra Ulva Enteromorpha
  crispus umbilicalis lactuca intestinalis
Protein 15% 20 20 14
Fat 2% 1 1 1
Carbohydrates 60% 60 44 45
Vitamin C 20ppm 500 150 80
Calcium 10.000ppm 5.000 7.000 8.500
Iodine 200ppm 300 200 50
Iron 200ppm 200 1.000 150
Magnesium 7.000ppm 3.000 28.000 25.000
Manganese 10ppm 40 300 8
Sodium 2% 2 1 8
Potassium 3%   0,7 0,5
  Chondrus Porphyra Ulva Enteromorpha
  crispus umbilicalis lactuca intestinalis


Seaweed as a rich new source of heart-healthy food ingredients [47]

According to Hayes et al. 2011 algae are becoming important because of their conten of bioactive peptides, now obtained mainly from milk products, as ingredients in functional foods. Macroalgae provide up to 47% protein of the dry weight of macroalgae.

Peptides derived from marcoalgae have hypotensive effects. Hypotensive peptides derived from marine and other sources have already been incorporated into functional foods.


Sushi [48]

Sushi is a traditional food of Japan which is known all over the world.The original meaning of Sushi was rice which had been turned souer using vinegar. Nowadays it stands for a special combination of Sushi-rice and other ingredients such as raw fish.

Classic Forms of Sushi


Nigiri-Sushi

Raw fish or shrimps are coated with Wasabipaste and placed on top of small rice dumplings.Nigri-Sushi is always served two at a time.


Maki-Sushi-roll

The filling is placed in the center of the roll and may contain two to five ingredients coated with rice, wrapped in a layer of Nori.
There are different forms of Maki-Sushi such as: Hosomaki are small Sushis.
Futomaki are big ones.
Gunkan-Maki have rice as bottom, Nori as wall and different ingredients on top of the rice.
Ura-Maki-Inside Out is also known as California Roll which are nori leaves coated with rice and rolled so that the rice layer is outside and can be coated with sesame seeds or caviar.
Temaki-Cornet are leaves of Nori foldet as cornet with rice and plenty of ingredients inside.


Sashimi

is Sushi without rice.All ingredients such as raw fish, vegetable, caviar and Nori leaves are placed on a Sushi board.


Chirashi

is a layer of warm Sushi-rice with seafood on top in a bowl served with Soysauce.

Margarine

As allergies are getting more frequent all possible allergens are controlled. In Leipzig (Germany) many families reported to have chosen margarine instead of butter.

Children of these families suffer more frequently from hay fever as children of families using butter in their nutrition. In those groups which had increased the intake of butter there were smaller levels of allergy - antibodies found.

These results should be analysed very carefully because they are based merely on a limited number of statistical cases.

The oversupply of our population with linolic acid from sunflower oil, corn germ oil, Soy and thistle oil can cause problems.

Linolic acid is an essential fatty acid. In small amounts it is indispensable for life. High levels of linolic acid act as basis for the synthesis of inflammatory hormones.

Together with the fact that a high level of linolic acid when burned can originate free radicals by unsufficient supply of tocopherol, and the fact that polyunsaturated fats oxidize and turn rancid very easily her intake should be reduced. Olive oil and rapeseed oil should be preferred[2]

As olive oil cannot supply the world demand of oil, only canola is left as ideal basis for the production of margarine.

Excessive amounts of olive oil may cause inhibition of phagocitosis of the reticular endothelian system (RES)[49]. 12 persons were given 240 ml olive oil to drink in form of an emulsion with water in a period of 24 hours. Three hours after the last portion of oil 2,5 mg/ Kg albumin marked with iodine-125 were given intravenous.

The level of marked albumin in blood was compared with the blood of control persons.

The slow decrease of blood albumin of the test persons after intake of the high amount of olive oil compared with a rapid decrease in the blood of control persons has led to the theory of inhibition of the RES caused by excessive intake of olive oil. This shows that large amounts of fat are unhealthy.


High-oleic sunflower seeds

New sunflower seeds with more than 80% of oleic acid are distributed by the BME ( Bundesernährungsministerium ) ministry of nutrition in Germany to test the possibility to use it as growing raw material.

This plant may become very important by growing need of oleic rich oil for human nutrition bearing in mind that high oleic olive oil is told to responsible for better health of the population of region of the Mediterranean Sea.[50].

Industry, traders, stores, and consumer should be aware that margarine containing rapeseed oil being better as made with sunflower and soybean oil. Butter and other saturated animal fats must also be reduced because of their content of cholesterol and the arteriosclerotic risk.

There are functional foods which are said to lower bad LDL cholesterol.
Margarine with this property contains plant sterol esters. [51].

When eaten regularly this margarine can reduce the level of LDL cholesterol in blood by as much as 14%. The results of a Mayo Clinic study presented at the 81st Annual American Dietetic Association Meeting in Kansas City has confirmed this activity of plant sterol esters.

Benecol is a margarine on market in Finland having plant sterol esters (sitostanol ester) as dietary ingredient.

Benecol margarine and Benecol cheese spread was launched on the Netherlands market in 1999 by Johnson & Johnson with cholesterol lowering claim.

Benecol cheese spread is based on the Benecol margarine. The health Ministry of Netherlands ordered to recall Benecol cheese spread as it is classified as Novel Food and must therefore undergo the approval procedure before entering the market.

Plant sterols

Plant sterols are naturally present in vegetable oils, in small amount in foods such as corn, wheat, rye, oats and olive oil and in wood in form of hydrated steroles called Stanoles.

Plant sterol esters are formed by esterifying sitosterol with fatty acids becoming fat-soluble.
Sitosterol is obtained as soybean extract.

The average intake of plant sterols is 300-500 mg/day.Vegetarians have a daily intake of 800 mg. According to Westrate[52] there are 1,5 - 3 g/day necessary to lower blood cholesterol about 10%. Other studies such as the MRFIT- Study[53] and Meta-Study of law et al. came to the same result. Plant steroles reduce blood LDL cholesterol. The HDL cholesterol remains unchanged.

Plant steroles are similar in its chemical configuration to cholesterol. They reduce the cholesterol blood level preventing it to be absorbed in the intestines and is being excreted with the excrements.

Less than 5% of phytosteroles are absorbed the prevailing part is eliminated with faecis carrying precipitated cholesterol.

There is also a competitive action between plant steroles and cholesterol in the affinity to the micelles as the plant steroles are more hydrophobic than cholesterol having therefore a higher affinity to the micelles which they fill, leaving any place to cholesterol, blocking thus the way in the interior of the cells.

Unilever wants to include Sterol derived from soybeans but must wait for the approval as novel food.

Benecol does not need to wait for an approval because it had been already launched before Novel Food Regulation came into force.

Plant sterols contributed over one third of the LDL-cholesterol reduction [54]

High LDL-cholesterol levels are strongly associated to cardiovascular diseases. According to the guidelines of the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) the LDL-lowering effect of plant sterols/stanols esters, from soybean and tall pine-tree oils at dosages of 2-3 g/day lower LDL-C levels by 6 -15 percent with little or no change in HDL cholesterol or triglyceride levels. Whereas 2 g/day are recently considered as having maximal LDL lowering effect. Stanols are obtained hydrogenating plant sterols. The efficacy of both are similar. Because lipids are needed to solubilize stanol/sterol esters, they are usually available in commercial margarines. [55]

According to a study leaded by David Jenkins the ATP III guidelines advocate effective combinations of cholesterol-lowering dietary components, resulting in large reductions in serum cholesterol. The authors assessed the contribution of the individual components of these diets. Plant sterols were selected because at 2 g/d, they have been reported to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) by 9% to 14%.

The researchers found that plant sterols contributed over one third of the LDL-C reduction seen with the dietary portfolio after 1 year of following dietary advice.

Consumption of Food and Beverages with Added Plant Sterols [56]

Food products with added plant sterols are widely available in the EU, such as yellow fat spreads, dairy products and sauces including mayonnaises. Consuming plant sterols has been shown to help reduce blood cholesterol as part of a healthy diet.

However, high doses can also reduce levels of carotenoids in the blood. These are a source of vitamin A and may help reduce the risk of certain chronic health disorders including some forms of cancer. Consumers should therefore restrict intake of such products to below the recommended maximum level of 3g per day.

EFSA Report on food and beverages with added sterols [57]

The report 2008 of the European Food Safety Authority on Food and beverages with added plant sterols highlights that while there seems to be little over-consumption of such products in the EU, a small subgroup appears to be consuming in excess of recommended amounts. It also reveals low consumer awareness of labelling and dietary guidelines for such products and of the need to consume sufficient fruit and vegetables to ensure robust blood carotenoid levels.

Structure of plant sterols

Plant sterols are structurally related to cholesterol and can be divided into phytosterols and phytostanols, phytostanols being the saturated form of the phytosterols. Phytosterols and phytostanols both exist in free or esterified form. Phytostanols are less used in commercial products because the production is more expensive requiring hydrogenation and esterification while phytosterols require only esterification.

Plant sterols fall into one of three categories: 4-desmethylsterols (no methyl groups); 4-monomethylsterols (one methyl group) and 4,4-dimethylsterols (two methyl groups). The most common plant sterols are beta-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol and structurally these are very similar to cholesterol, belonging to the class of 4-desmethylsterols.

Intake recommendations

It is clear that the manufacturers target a daily intake of between 1.5-3 g of phytosterol for an average person, covering the beneficial range as noted by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF, 2002a) [58]. In many cases the portion size provides about a third of the recommended daily phytosterol intake and the manufacturers suggest accordingly that the specific product should be consumed three times a day or other phytosterol-enriched products should be consumed to supplement the intake.

There is a growing concern that, as the number of enriched product categories increases, consumers might use several products simultaneously and receive higher doses of plant sterols than intended.

The normal Western diet would contribute a daily supply of plant sterols in the range of 150-400 mg per person [58]. It should be noted that vegetarian diets are closer to the upper range.

It has been found that plant sterols in the diet reduce the cholesterol absorption in humans and there is some evidence that levels of naturally occurring plant sterols might reduce blood cholesterol to a small degree. However, for an effective reduction higher doses are required. Scientific studies indicate that consumption of 1.5-3 g of plant sterols per day can significantly reduce the level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in individuals if consumed as part of a healthy diet. It can be concluded that the estimated average intake of 300 mg of naturally occurring plant sterols in the diet constitutes only about 10-20% of the recommended intake of 1.5-3 g

To take advantage of the cholesterol-lowering effect, an increasing number of food products with added plant sterols or plant sterol esters have become available on the EU market. Foods with added phytosterols or phytosterol esters require a novel food authorisation according to regulation 258/97/EC [59] since they were not used significantly as food in the European Union before 15 May 1997. Foods with added phytostanols or phytostanol esters do not need a novel food authorisation since they were already used as food within the EU before the introduction of the novel food legislation.

Plant sterols influence on carotene and other other essential fat-soluble micro nutrients [60]

Unfortunately, the consumption of high doses of plant sterols can also significantly reduce the blood levels of carotenoids and, to a lesser extent, other essential fat-soluble micro nutrients. Although the consequences of a persistently decreased blood concentration of carotenoids on human health are largely unknown, there could be a concern during pregnancy, lactation or infancy when vitamin A requirements are greater than normal. As a prudent precaution it has thus been suggested that intakes of plant sterols should not exceed 3 g per day. [58]

Plant sterol intake and low-fat diet [61]

Chen and colleagues 2009 studied the effect of low-fat diet and plant sterols on plasma lipids, lipoproteins and carotenoids.

Effect of low-fat diet

Plasma total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, Apo A1 and Apo B were lower with a fat reduction diet (26.4% fat and 7.7% of energy) compared with the typical American diet (33.5% fat and 13.2% of energy). TC/HDL cholesterol was found by the authors to remain inaltered.

Effect of plant sterol

Plant sterol intake (3.3 g/day) lowered TC, LDL cholesterol, Apo B and TC/HDLC by without affecting HDL cholesterol and Apo A1.

The authors stress that the effect of phytosterol intake and low-fat diet lower independently plasma LDL cholesterol lipids and their effects are summed. The authors comment further that their findings support foregoing studies in relation to the effect of phitosterols on plasma carotenoids.

Phytosterol and carotinoids [62]

Ntanios and colleagues 2002 studying side-effects associated with the consumption of PS-enriched spreads had found a small reduction in plasma levels of the most lipophilic carotenoids such as ß-carotene, but no changes in plasma vitamins A and E levels.

Labelling of foods with added plant sterols [63]

The EC regulation 608/2004 imposes a statutory requirement for all products with added plant sterols to label the maximum daily dose of such compounds and include an advise pregnant or nursing women and children under 5 years of age to avoid consuming these products.

Resolution of the European Commission 200/500/EG. Phytosterine rich margarine

The Commission has allowed Unilever to put on market her new margarine containing a maximum of 8% of phytosterine corresponding 14% phytosterin ester. This fat spread is suitable for persons who want to lower their blood cholesterol.

Contraindications: Patients which are taking drugs to lower cholesterol should include this fat spread in their nutrition under supervision of a doctor.

Consuming this fat spread a significant reduction of vitamin A takes place. People with a deficiency of vitamin A (pregnant women, breast-feeding and children under 5 years) should be informed that the margarine is not suitable for these groups.

Consuming this margarine more fruits and vegetables should be included in the nutrition in order to compensate the reduction of vitamin A .

Unilever has to monitor the groups of consumers in order to inform the European Commission whether the margarine reaches the target group and how much other groups are getting exposed to a high phytosterin level.

Other companies trying to commercialize plant sterols are:
Forbes Medi-tech and Novartis using phytosterols made from wood and Monsanto extracting sterols from corn fibre oil and esterifying with ferulic acid as natural antioxidant Esters of sterols blocks cholesterol absorption inhibiting the transportation from the digestive tract to the liver.
The amount of total and LDL cholesterol are lowered.

[64]
Oil/fat Total sterols gramm in 100 g oil/fat
Palmkernel oil 0,08
Palm oil 0,04
Olive oil 0,11
Peanut oil 0,24
Rapeseed oil 0,62
Cotton oil 0,43
Corn oil 0,85
Soybean oil 0,34
Sunflower oil 0,35
Linseed oil 0,43


[65]
Oil/fat cholesterol brasicasterol campesterol stigmasterol sitosterol
Palmkernel oil 1 - 12 13 74
Palm oil 4 - 21 12 63
Olive oil - - 3 - 97
Peanut oil 1 - 12 12 76
Rapeseed oil - 10 27 - 63
Cotton oil - 1 8 - 91
Corn oil - - 20 6 74
Soybean oil - - 19 24 57
Sunflower oil - - 11 8 62*
Linseed oil 2 2 28 10 54*
* and other components

The Mayo Clinic Study on Plant Sterol Esters,October 21.1998

A group of individuals who had borderline and mildly raised blood cholesterol were given three times a day 8 g of spread containing 1 g of plant sterol ester reducing 14% of LDL cholesterol after a period of 8 weeks.

The HDL cholesterol levels (the good one) did not decrease.


Classification of the steroles


Zoosteroles

: Are the steroles which are present in animals. Most important of them is the cholesterol.It is present in brain (2,5%),heart (2,0%), egg yolk (1,5%), mayonnaise (0,25%), butter (0,25%),meat (0,07%) and fish (0,05%).


Phytosteroles

: Are the steroles which are present in plants such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol.


Mykosteroles

Image Steroles


Raffination of oils and steroles

Raffination of oils and fats removes components with bad taste and smell, such as free fatty acids, products of oxidation, ketones, aldehydes and ketones, waxes,slime and phosphatides. It also removes environmental contaminants, herbicides,pesticides, fungicides, polycyclic hydrocarbon, heavy metals and products of the metabolism of of microorganism leaving traces which are tolerable.

Image Raffination

Raffination of oils remove part of the steroles. Refined oils have 0,1 to 0,45% of steroles left. Vegetable oil cannot be a source of a daily intake of approximately 2 g/day.

Acid Value: AOAC pH-Metric Determination in Vegetable Oils without Titration [66]

Free fatty acids are measured as a quality control of vegetable oils during their production, trade, and use. It is expressed as acid value (AV).

According to AOAC the acid value of edible oils can be determined without titration using a reagent containing a solution of water, isopropyl alcohol and triethanolaminea. The oil sample is mixed with the reagent in the pH-metric cell, free fatty acids from the sample are extracted into the reagent.

The initial pH, called conditional pH'1, is measured, a standard acid (HCl) is added, and the final pH, pH'2, is measured. AV is calculated from the difference between pH'1 and pH'2.


Texture of fats,oils and margarine

Fats and oils modify the structure, the stability the shelf life and the taste of food. It is therefore very important to determine the texture of fats and their blends.


Dilatation values

The fat Industry used to determine the texture of fats by measuring the dilatation of the product at different temperatures.
The dilatation of fats goes straight on in solid form. As soon a part of the fatty acids melts the dilatation graphic suffers a jump tha can be seen on a diagram and can be expressed as percentage of solids at different temperatures. 10, 20, 30 and 40° usually reported. The method was very work intensive and was therefore changed by NMR values using Brookfeld equipment.


NMR-values

As explained above, fats give a different response in solid or in melted form. This can be measured by Nuclear Mass Resonance ( NMR ) giving the percentage of solids in fats present in different temperatures.

NMR- values differ about 4 points to the old not any more used method of dilatation. So if you find in old literature dilatation values you can compare it with NMR-values subtracting 4%.

NMR values are important to fat industry. They gives informations about melting response of the product at different stages of their using. Bakery, chocolate an all manufacturing factories depend on the texture of fat during processing in their equipments at different temperatures.

Texture analysis of fats oils and margarine

To have more informations about taste properties of fats oils and margarine and to express them in figures a conic shaped metal piece with a long stem was dropped under determined conditions on the margarine.

The immersion of the cone expressed in centimeters gave an indication concerning the texture of the fat blend. This method was very imperfect and giving often false response.

To overcome these problems a texture analyzer such as TA.XT2i [67]have been developed. It consists of a conic sensor with an angle of 45° and a plate with the same angle where the fat is placed.

The force which is necessary to deform the test material is by means of a graphic analysed giving so informations about the spreading properties of margarine and other fat spreads showing the force which is necessary to deform the product.

Image Texture_of_margarine

Spreading properties and hardness result from the relation of solids to liquid oil at 10° (refrigerator) and 20° (room temperature).

Smoothness and stiffness as well as other undesired properties of fat blends depend on the dimension and form of the fat crystals. A product is smooth when the crystals are small. Stiffness and other failures result from great crystals. Texture analysis can express such failures in form from graphics.

Deep frying oil and shortenings

The fast food is mainly based on deep frying using oil or fat.

The oil used is soybean oil rapeseed oil and cotton oil which may be hydrogenated. Palmoil and his fractions are also used in large scale.

Refined edible fats used in products like margarine and in infant formula may pose a health risk [68]

In a statement the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) refined edible fats used in products like margarine and in infant formula, may pose a health risk. During the refining of vegetable oil, such as palm oil, the ester-bound glycidol is formed. The BfR says that glycidol may be released during digestion. Glycidol is carcinogenic.

The BfR adopts the hypothetical assumption that one kilogram of edible fat contains one milligram glycidol. The Institute says that infants who are fed exclusively industrially prepared infant milk formula would take in harmful levels of glycidol. As there is no alternative to infant milk formula with refined fats for infants who are not exclusively breastfed, the manufacturers of these products must do everything they can to reduce the levels of glycidol fatty acid esters as far as possible.

The German association Stiftung Warentest analysed a vegetable fat creme which is labelled as a butter substitute. The association found palm oil glycidol-esters which may release the carcinogenic glycidol during digestion. [69]

Soybean oil

due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids is not suitable for deep frying because it deteriorates very soon during frying.

Soybean and cottonseed oil is therefore used in hydrogenated form to reduce the chemical reactions during long periods of heating.

Partially hydrogenated oil

Partially hydrogenated oil has high amounts of trans fatty acids 7.10. Partially hydrogenated oils are used in North and South America because they are produced there.

Palmoil and his fractions are widely used in Europe because soybeans as well as palmoil are imported.Soybean oil offers therefore no price advantage.

Recent studies have shown that the trans fatty acids originated from hardening process increases the LDL cholesterol and lowers the HDL cholesterol in plasma. Moreover the trans fatty acids are suspected to interfere with the metabolism of essential fatty acids.

Danish retail margarine is now produced with trans-free hard fats. Industrial margarine such as used for backery has today under 5% of trans fatty acids. In near future "zero" will be the standard.(Peter Petersen, Aarhus Olie, Margarine-New Trends for a New Millenium Anuga Food Tec 2000, Cologne 13 April 2000.)

Margarine free of atherogenic trans-fatty acids [70]

Kim, Lumor and Akoh 2008, researchers from the University of Georgia developed alternatives to partially hydrogenated vegetable oils high in trans fatty acids used for the production of margarine and other foods.

Structured lipids for formulating trans-free margarines were synthesized by lipase-catalyzed interesterification of the blends of canola oil, palm stearin, and palm kernel oil in weight ratios of 50:30:20 or 60:25:15. Both blends were trans-free and had similar hardness, adhesiveness, or cohesiveness to margarines which were produced from hydrogenated vegetable oils margarine fats high in trans-fratty acids.

The authors claim that lipase-catalyzed interesterification of canola /palm stearin/ palm kernel oil is the is one of the most successful process in the production of trans-free margarines.

Palmoil

[71] Palm oil is one of the world's most popular vegetable oils.

Ninety per cent of the world's palm-oil exports come from the oil-palm plantations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Most of these plantations are on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. The very lowland forest that the oil-palm industry favours for conversion is the only remaining habitat of the orang-utan.

Destructive oil-palm plantations will continue to spread, and the forests of Borneo and Sumatra will continue to be destroyed, unless the governments of Indonesia and Malaysia recognise the customary land rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.

Solution: This report calls for an immediate end to all forest conversion to oil palm, and recognition of the customary land rights of local people.

Boycotting palm oil is not the answer. There are also serious social and environmental problems associated with growing other vegetable oils, such as soy in Brazil.

The UK is the second biggest importer of palm oil in Europe after the Netherlands. UK imported 914.000 tons in 2004, representing 23% of total palm oil import in the EU. The demand will further increase with the development of bio-fuel plants.

As the promise of profits increases, the big players are beginning to get involved. The two largest external stakes in Greenergy Biofuels are held by Tesco and Cargill.

Tesco will shift the product on its petrol forecourts, while Cargill - one of two giants that dominate the world food market - will supply the feedstock. Gone are the days when biofuels meant bearded hippies running their clapped-out vans on recycled chip fat. [72]

Biofuels Corporation has just finished building a biodiesel plant at Seal Sands, near Middlesbrough, and supplies fuel throughout the UK, with an annual production capacity of 284 million litres of biodiesel, using as feedstock palm oil from Malaysia and other vegetable oils.

Greenergy Biofuels, with its new plant at Immingham on Humberside, expects palm oil to be one of the main feedstocks. [72]

Palm oil health related concerns [73]

According to Enas tropical oils, such as coconut and palm oil are very rich in saturated fats. Their cholesterol-raising potential is similar to or higher than most animal fats. Liberal use of these oils should be discouraged.

The American Medical Association expressed concern about the atherogenicity of coconut and/or palm oil in food products. Saturated fatty acids are found primarily in animal products and in tropical oils"(coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils).

Persons attempting to limit saturated fatty acid intake should be aware of the high content of saturated fatty acids in tropical oils. [74]

According to a meta-analysis by Clarke and colleagues, the ratio of total cholesterol to HDL cholesterol is important. The higher the ratio, the greater the risk.

Palmitic acid increases that ratio more than other saturated fatty acids, including lauric acid and myristic acid, which are abundant in palm kernel oil and coconut oil, the other tropical oils. Palm oil increases the total:HDL cholesterol ratio more than the average U.S. dietary fat, though less than stick margarine, typical vegetable shortening (made with partially hydrogenated vegetable oil).[75]

The World Health Organization has stated that there is convincing evidence that palmitic acid increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. [76]

A U.S. government regulation requires that, by January 1, 2006, food labels list a product's content of trans fat, which comes from partially hydrogenated vegetable oil and is a major cause of heart disease. Many food processors are seeking to eliminate trans fat by switching to other oils. Palm oil is one such alternative. [77]

The Center for Science in the Public Interest in a letter to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in June 1, 2005 expressed concerne that the use of palm oil may increase due to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) impending labeling requirement for trans fat. The group urged the FDA to encourage companies to reformulate foods without both partially hydrogenated oil and palm oil. [78]

Toxicology of heated fat

Oil and fat being heated in presence of oxygen form hydroperoxydes [79]
Overheated fat causes irritation of the gastric system, enlarged liver retarding and even death of animals. This is intensified by an unsufficient supply of vitamin E.

Polymerization under high temperatures can also take place without oxygen. Chemical compound formed during deep frying are:Aldehydes, free fatty acids, alcohol, lactones, esters, ketone, aromatic compounds and epoxides.

Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids are the most toxic of all mentioned compounds.

Enzymes bearing, SH-groups are inhabited by peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Peroxides of polyunsaturated fatty acids are also formed without strong heating. Atmospheric oxygen can originate peroxides when unsufficient antioxidants like alfa-tocopherol is present.

Vegetable fats and oils have sufficient natural tocopherol to protect them from oxidation. Wrong food processing such as heating and long time storage reduces the natural antioxidant system.Strong heating and long storage of oils and fats during reffination should be avoided.

Sometimes processing of food destroys natural tocopherol Peroxides of linolic acid has proved to be toxic for the miocardium, it has breast tumor activity [79].


Vitamin E in edible oils

Edible oils are a source of tocopherol. Some of them have many unsaturated bounds which can form peroxides in human organism. These lipid peroxides which harm the cell membrane. Signal transduction and permeability of the cell membrane are disturbed.

To avoid the formation of lipid peroxides natural antioxidants such as vitamin E are necessary summing up to 0,3 mg alfa tocopherol for 1 gram of double bound.
The vitamin E which is available as antioxidant after deducting its own need are as follow:


Wheat germ oil

is rich on vitamin E (220mg/100g).After deduction of its own need there 170 mg/100 are available.Unfortunately it is very expensive and is therefore not used commonly in Kitchen.


Sunflower oil

It has about 50 mg/100g tocopherol. After deduction of its own need there are about 19 mg/100g available.


Butter fat

It has about 2 mg Tocopherol in 100 g fat.Its own need demands more than that, so that a supplement of tocopherol of 0,2 mg/100g is necessary.


Maize oil

It has 30 mg tocopherol/100g and around 60% of polyunsaturated fatty acids . Its own need of antioxidants to avoid peroxidation exceeds by far its natural content of vitamin E.

It needs therefore a supplementation of 5 mg/100 g for its own need. Be sure there is vitamin E added to maize oil otherwise it would increase the demand of tocopherol from other sources.


Lard

: It has about 10% polyunsaturated fatty acids and 0,3% vitamin E/100 g. The demand for its own antioxidant need is 6 mg/100g which has to be supplied from other sources.


Safflower oil

It has 75 to 80% of polyunsaturated fatty acid and 35 mg tocopherol/100.Its own antioxidant need 13 mg/ 100 from other sources. Be sure there is vitamin E added to safflor oil to avoid a negative balance of vitamin E.


Tocopherol isomer Biological activity of alpha tocopherol
   
beta tocopherol 30%
   
Gamma tocopherol 15%
   
delta tocopherol 1%

[80]
Oil or fat Total tocopherol alpha tocopherol beta gamma delta
Coconut oil 80 36 - 47 -
Maize oil 1020 126 - 894 -
Cottonseed oil 1100 760 - 340 -
Olive oil 200 - - - -
Palmoil 460 150 - 240 70
Soybean oil 1140 80 - 660 400
Sunflower oil 595 560 - 35 -
Wheatgerm oil 3800 - - - -
Tallow 10 - - - -
Lard 27 - - - -
Butter 30 - - - -

Colon carcinogenicity of heated oil

Corn germ oil heated at 210°C together with bubbles of air oxidize rapidly. This oil after cooling when fed to rats activated enzymes such as benzpyren hydroxylase in the mucous layer of their colon. Liver and enzymes of small intestine remained unchanged.

Benzpyren hydroxylase triggered by heated corn germ oil could increase the transformation of procarcinogenic products in carcinogenic ones .

Deep frying should not exceed the temperature of 180°C .Heating time should be short. Intermittent heating and cooling should be avoided because it leads to form polymerization of fat.

Recommendations for Frying Oils, Third International Symposium on Deep-fat Frying. March 20-21,2000.

[81] The following recommendations for frying oils were adopted by the delegates:

1- Principle quality index for deep-fat frying should be sensory parameters of the food being fried.

2- Analysis of suspect frying fats and oils should utilize two tests to confirm abuse.
Recommended analytic should be:
Total Polar Materials (24%)
Polymeric Materials (12%)

3- The use of rapid tests for monitoring oil quality are recommended. Rapid tests should exhibit the following characteristics:
Correlate with internationally recognized standard methods
Safe for use in food processing/preparation area
Quantify with oil degradation
4- Previous work: There are no health concerns associated with consumption of frying fats and oils that have not been abused at normal frying conditions. ( Note of the author of OurFood: There are health concerns with the consumption of frying fats related to trans-fatty acids, so fried food should be consumed with reserve. For further information search in "Physiology".
5- Encourage development
6- Encourage and support basic research
7- Use of filter materials to maintain oil quality.
8- Used, but not abused , frying oils may be topped up or diluted with fresh oil with no adverse effects on quality.

Group Plant Name
     
Legumen    
  Soya Glycine max (L.) Merill
  Peanut Arachis hypogaea
  Oil lupine Lupinus albus
     
Erucic acid plants    
Rape group    
  Rape Brassica napus L. oleifera
  Rape of India Brassica napus L. dichotoma
  Sarson, Colza India Brassica napus. glauca
  Ravison,Colza Brassica campestris)
Mustard group    
  White mustard Sinapis alba
Other rape seed crops    
    Camelina sativa
  Rocket Eruca vesicaria sativa
  OIl radish Raphanus sativus
     
Flax plants    
  Linseed oil Linum usitatissimum
     
Mallow    
  Cottonseed oil Gossypium hirsutum
     
Other oil plants    
Oilseeds    
  Maize Zea mays
  Rice Oryza sativa
  Wheat Triticum ssp
  Sunflower Helianthus annuus
  Safflower Carthamus tinctorius
  Wine Vitis vinifera
     
Palm tree    
  Oil palm Elaeis guineensis
  Coco palm Cocos nucifera
  Olive tree Olea europaea
  Babassu palm Orbignia speciosa L.


Group Oil or fat Animal Name
Land animals      
  Lard pigs Sus domesticus
  tallow bovine Bos taurus
  Mutton fat Mutton Ovis aries
  Goose fat Goose Anser domesticus
       
       
Marine animals      
  Mamals Whale  
    Seals  
  Fish Herring Clupea harengus
    Sardine Sardinops caerulea
    Sardine of Peru Clupeapilchardus
  Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus  


Soya bean

The soya plant was known in china since antiquity. The cultivation of Soya started in USA in 1910 increasing rapidly in 1936 and by beginning of the II world war. About 90% of the world consumption is covered by USA and china. Brazil covers about 12%.

Soya and peanut are plants of the family of the legumen.They form fruit leaves which fold forming husks.On the edge of the fruit leaves the seeds are attached In case of peanuts the husks are underground. That is why peanuts need a special soil with high content of sand which turns the soil soft this enables the husks to spread around.

Soya beans are rich in oil, proteins and carbohydrates. The beans are processed in the country of destination. After winning oil and lecithin from the beans The soya cake is left over from the production of oil.It is used as valuable animal feed because of the high content of proteins and carbohydrates.Therefore the Soya beans are traded at the stock market, stored and transported in form of beans.

Other oilseeds like palmoil, palmkernel oil or coco nut oil are processed in the countries of origin because the leftovers from the winning of oil are not valuable enough to pay the costs of transportation. Lecithin Lecithin of soya beans is a valuable ingredient of foods and has many uses in pharmacy. Lecithin is a part of the cell wall of the nervous system.

The spread of genetic modified seeds all over the earth is the reason why all efforts are being made to find substitutes for soya lecithin. On market are already lecithin from rape oil. The amount being obtained from rape however cannot cover the needs of the international market. The purity of nature of soya plant should therefore be protected.

The plants of the family of Leguminosae (Soya and peanuts) can undergo symbiosis with certain bacteria which can assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. This is the reason why the seeds of these plants are rich in proteins making the valuable for human and animal nutrition.

Soya proteins are used in in backery,as substitute for meat and as fortifier in sport medicine. In case of allergy against milk protein soya milk made of soya proteins can be used as substitute.


Calcium fortification of soymilk [82]

The protein of soymilk and other high protein drinks interacts with with calcium lactate and precipitates out. Not fortified soy milk have not more than 20 mg of calcium/100 ml. Producers are eager to fortify soymilk and rice drinks with 120 mg of calcium /100 ml to match it with milk.

High protein content of soymilk and rice drinks, acidity of acidified milk products and tannins, and other polyphenols interact with calcium. Fortification with calcium to justify high calcium claim reduces shelf life of the product.

Inorganic calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate have lower bioavailability than organic calcium lactate, calcium gluconate, calcium citrate.

According to Sojaland, Schwerin-based company owned by Wild, the new capacity is intended to improve product taste. The soy foods started as health foods and are now located in the mainstream sector based on improvements to taste which do not have the typical beany taste. [83]

Health benefits

The health benefits from soy milk and other soy foods are such as for menopausal women, the products present an alternative to dairy for the lactose intolerant. Traditional dairies expand their range into soy with a variety of taste.

Soy isoflavones are involved in building bone mass, suppressing bone turnover and enhancement of calcium absorption.


Tofu

Tofu is a cheese-like product of Soymilk which is curdled by a coagulant.It is known as soybean curd.

Calcium sulfate (gypsum), Nigari ( a mixture of magnesium chloride, sodium chloride won from sea water), lemon juice or vinegar are used as coagulant.

Calcium sulfate increases tofu content of calcium of . Nigari is told to produce a better tastes of the resulting tofu.


Rape oil

Rape plants are being cultivated in Europe (Germany, France, Netherlands and Scandinavia, Sweden).Canada is one of the main producer of rape. Argentina and Japan must also be mentioned.
Rape seed has 30 to 50% of oil, up to 25% of proteins.

In 1960 was noted that erucic acid which was present in the rape oil in about 50% had a necrotic toxic effect on the heart muscle and deposit of fat in the heart muscle. A selection of seeds made it possible to reduce erucic acid under 1% turning therefore rapeseed oil a valuable part of nutrition.

Erucic free sorts of Brassica campestris and B. napus are cultivated as summer seed in Canada and Brassica napus as winter seed in Germany
Rapeseed oil has aquire an importance as renewable energy as it can be used as substitute for diesel oil.


Erucic acid [84]

Erucic acid is a substance naturally found in some oils derived from plants, primarily in some varieties of mustard seed oil and rapeseed oil. Although there have been no confirmed cases of erucic acid toxicity in humans, high levels of erucic acid have been linked to the formation of fatty deposits in heart muscle in animals.

Erucic acid is a 22-carbon monounsaturated fatty acid with a single double bond at the omega 9 position. Erucic acid constitutes about 30-60% of the total fatty acids of rapeseed, mustard seed and wallflower seed and up to 80% of the total fatty acids of nasturtium seeds. Erucic acid has also been found in some marine animal oils.

The Erucic Acid in Food Regulations 1977 (S.I. 1977 No. 691 [as amended]) limit the erucic acid content of foods to no more than 5% of the total fatty acid, in products with more than 5% fat (the latter restriction does not apply for foods aimed at infants or young children).

In response to potential safety concerns associated with high dietary exposure to erucic acid (myocardial lipidosis and heart lesions in laboratory rats), efforts were made, using selective breeding, to transfer a low erucic acid trait into agronomically adapted cultivars of Brassica napus and B. campestris, which are used in the production of rapeseed oils. These varieties of rape were superseded by the canola varieties in the 1980s.

Canola varieties have improved agronomic characteristics, such as increased yield and improved disease resistance. By definition, canola refers to B. napus and B. campestris lines containing less than 2 % of the total fatty acids as erucic acid.

These canola varieties comprise almost the entire rapeseed crop produced in the world today. In 1997, the erucic acid content of 50% of the Australian canola crop was 0.3 % or less of the total fatty acids. The maximum reported erucic acid level was 1.6 % of the total fatty acids.

The term canola has been registered and adopted in Canada to describe the oil (seeds, plants) obtained from the cultivars Brassica napus and Brassica campestris.

In 1986, the definition of canola was amended to refer to B. napus and B. campestris (now Brassica rapa) lines containing <2% erucic acid in the oil and <30 micromol/g glucosinolates in the air-dried, oil-free meal. Throughout this document, the term "low erucic acid rapeseed" refers to low erucic acid, low glucosinolate rapeseed, or canola.

"Double zero" rapeseed varieties

indexRapeseed, double zero [84] In Europe, "double zero" rapeseed varieties are defined as those producing seed with a maximum glucosinolate content of 25 moles/g (seed weight) and with a moisture content of 9% (determined by method EN ISO 9167-1:1995) and, having erucic acid content of not more than 2% of the total fatty acid content (determined by method EN ISO 5508:1995).

Developments in Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed

After ten years of backcrossing and selection to transfer the low erucic acid trait into agronomically adapted cultivars, the first low erucic acid varieties, B. napus and B. campestris were released in 1968 and 1971, respectively (Eskin et al., 1996).

In Canada, the terms LEAR (low erucic acid rapeseed oil) and Canbra (Canadian Brassica) were used to identify rapeseed oil containing less than 5% erucic acid. Rapeseed meal is used exclusively as a high protein feed supplement for livestock and poultry.

Prior to the late 1970s, the use of this oilseed processing by-product as an animal feed was limited by the presence of glucosinolates in the seed.

Glucosinolates themselves are generally considered to be innocuous, however the hydrolysis products have negative effects on animal production.

The low palatability and the adverse effects of glucosinolates due to their antithyroid activity led to the development of varieties of rapeseed which have combined low levels of both glucosinolates and erucic acid (also known as "double low" varieties).

Low erucic acid rapeseed breeding programs in the 1980s and 1990s have produced cultivars with higher yields, increased oil and protein contents, earlier maturity, yellow seeds, reduced green seed and improved disease, insect and herbicide resistance (Eskin et al., 1996).


Sugar free products

Sugar free products are increasingly accepted by the consumer. They have sometimes better quality and taste compared with sugar products.Certain types are teeth friendly, low in calories and suitable for diabetic.


Isomalt

[85] Isomalt is a sugar replacer produced from sugar beet. His taste is not so sweet as sugar and it has no cooling effect which is often unwanted.It is low hygroscopic which makes candies stable without being wrapped one by one.

Isomalt is a mixture of 6-O-alfa-D-glucopyranosol-D-sorbitol (1,6-GPS) and 1-O-alfa-D-glucopyranosol-D-mannitol-dihydrate (1,1-GPM).

Increasing the 1,6-GPS part, which is water soluble part, isomalt increases the solubility kinetic soluble as maltitol and is comparable to xylitol.

Xylitol, Xilit, also called wood sugar or birch sugar, (2,3,4,5)tetrahydroxy-pentanol, (C5H12O5) (E 967) [86] [87]

Xylitol is a five-carbon sugar alcohol that is used as a sugar substitute. It can be extracted from birch, rasperries, plums, and corn and is primarily produced in China. It is roughly as sweet as sucrose, but contains less than 40% food energy.

It is very popular in Finnland which is considered its "home country". It can have a mild laxative effect at high doses. It has no known toxicity. It is a popular sweetener for the diabetic diet in some countries.

Xylitol belongs to the polyol family of sugar alcohols. It is as sweet as sucrose, xylitol is the sweetest of all the polyols, but is said to have no after-taste and is safe for diabetics.

Xylitol is increasingly being used as a sugar substitute because it has one-third fewer calories, a cool mint flavour, helps fight cavity-causing bacteria and does not involving insulin. The EU Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) authorised polyols for use in foods are sorbitol, xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, maltitiol and isomalt.

Production of xylitol

Xylitol is won from birch-wood fibres under acids, high pressure and temperature, chemical catalysts followed by separation and purification steps.

US Agricultural Research Service (ARS) chemist Badal Saha Timothy D. Leathers and collaborators developed a technology experimenting with yeasts like Aureobasidium, Pichia guilliermondii, Candida peltata and modified Escherichia coli bacteria, which can convert the hemicellulose sugars xylose and arabinose from corn fiber leftovers of U.S. ethanol production or other sources into xylitol.

Xylitol reduces browning and degradation of preservative in beverages [88]

Carmen Campos and colleagues 2008 studying the interaction between aspartame, glucose and xylitol in aqueous model systems of pH 3.00 and containing potassium sorbate found that 0.050 to 0.500 per cent aspartame reduced the degradation of potassium sorbate from of system. Xylitol was used as humectant to minimized aspartame degradation and non-enzymatic browning development.

According to Campos the preservative potassium sorbate suffers an oxidative degradation in aqueous solutions and brown pigments develop, affecting the microbial stability and the sensory quality of the food.

The authors stress that the presence of aspartame, xylitol or glucose and their mixtures produced a synergistic effect on sweetness intensity.
The authors concluded that xylitol and the use of more than one sweetener would enhance sweetness of the product and minimize degradation of potassium sorbate and reduce browning development.

Tomato ketchup, tomato and tomato pulp

Tomato ketchup has a growing acceptance all over the world.It was born in USA and soon became a place in fast food restaurants. Children like it because of the color and last but not least because of strong taste.

In German 1,4 Kg of tomato Ketchup were eaten each year ( Weber, 1992) Tomato ketchup is produced from tomato pulp, salt, sugar and other monosaccharides, vinegar and spices.Onions garlic, thickening agents like carob seed, Guar seed, gum tragacanth and starch may be used.

In Germany the Bundesverband der Deutschen Feinkostindustrie (The association of the German fine food industry) has established a guideline for tomato Ketchup.

At least 24,1% of tomato pulp 28-30% dry matter also called double concentrated tomato pulp are to be used for tomato ketchup. High quality products have up to 37% of tomato pulp double concentrated.
Tomato pulp is a basic part of tomato ketchup. It is therefore very intensively submitted to quality analysis.
Taste, odor and color are important tests on receipt of tomato pulp.
Some further quality criteria are given below[89]:
EtOH TA CA CA/Ta L-LA D-LA AA SA
0,1 16,9 17,9 1,06 0,8 1,3 0,4 2,5
0,1 17,3 16,2 0,94 0,9 0,6 0,5 2,0
0,1 16,6 16,6 1,00 0,5 0,4 0,6 1,5
0,1 18,5 19,7 1,06 1,1 0,9 0,4 2,4
0,1 19,5 19,7 1,01 0,6 0,7 0,6 1,9
0,1 19,4 20,6 1,06 0,5 0,3 0,3 1,1
0,1 19,6 17,4 0,89 0,3 0,3 0,9 1,6
0,1 16,9 17,2 1,02 0,6 0,3 0,5 1,4
0,1 17,4 16,4 0,94 0,1 0,1 0,5 0,7

EtOH Ethanol
TA Total acids as citric acid
CA Citric acid
L-LA L-lactic acid
D-LA D-lactic acid
AA acetic acid
SA Sum of L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid and acetic acid.
  All numbers are g/Kg
[89]
EtOH TA CA CA/Ta L-LA D-LA AA SA
4,39 15,0 9,3 0,62 5,7 3,6 2,2 11,6
0,87 24,2 18,6 0,77 4,6 3,7 4,2 12,5
2,28 24,4 16,0 0,66 8,1 4,0 3,1 15,2
0,68 18,1 10,4 0,57 3,5 5,4 2,8 11,7
0,1 17,4 8,3 0,48 4,7 3,4 2,7 10,7
4,57 17,6 13,6 0,77 3,8 3,3 1,4 8,5
7,5 17,3 12,2 0,71 3,6 2,1 1,3 7,0
1,76 16,8 7,7 0,46 7,5 3,1 4,6 15,2
1,2 15,4 7,7 0,50 6,8 2,6 4,0 13,4
0,10 19,1 12.4 0,65 4,9 4,3 2,2 11,4
2,42 18,8 13,2 0,70 3,5 2,6 2,2 8,3
2,77 18,0 11,2 0,62 4,5 3,4 3,4 11,3
1,26 18,2 12,6 0,69 3,6 3,3 1,4 8,3
2,40 18,2 10,2 0,56 4,9 3,4 4,0 12,3
10,4 15,8 12,3 0,78 1,0 0,9 1,3 3,2
0,96 17,3 7,8 0,45 3,3 2,7 3,0 9,0
1,26 17,6 7,0 0,40 2,9 6,5 1,6 11,1
Ethanol is present
Relation citric acid/total acid the relation in spoiled pulp is
  between 0,4 and 0,9. Good pulp has
  a relation over 0,9 as citric
  acid is metabolized by spoiling bacteria.
Sum of organic acids The Sum of L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid
  acetic acid over 3 g/Kg.These acids are
  formed during spoilage.

Good tomato pulp has the following analytical data All mentioned analytical data testing tomato pulp should be considered together because different acids are formed by different species of bacteria.
Recently ergosterol is also used in quality control of tomato pulp, being a maximum of 3,0 mg/Kg allowed.
Tomato pulp of the European Union is being produced mainly in Italy, Greece and Spain.
Pulp of Turkey, and Uzbek (Russia ) are imported in small amount.
The quality varies to its origin and producer.
The products of northern Italy such as the region of Parma are of high quality. The main product of this region is the pulp which is concentrated and packed assepticaly without delay during harvest in these factories, thus giving yeasts, moulds and bacteria no chance of spoilage.
In southern Italy, such as the region of Neapel and Salermo the main products are peeled and crushed tomatoes. The rest of this production is used to manufacture tomato pulp.
As the capacity of the production line during harvest in these factories are insufficient, the pulp is left in open barrels, unprotected, sometimes exposed to sun. Deterioration takes place.
The Ubekistan tomato pulp is triple concentrated. Due to old technology the color and the taste are of very low quality.
The biogenic acidsaflatoxins and other contaminants are originated under these conditions.
Color and taste are often a useful indicator of bad manufacturing practice such as described by Hanewinkel-Meshkini [90]
At first the Howard mould count ( HMC ) was used to monitor mould activity in tomato pulp.
Moulds are a hazard in tomato pulp because of possible production of mycotoxines such as tenuazonic acid from the mould Alternaria alternata (tenuis), Alternaria tenuissima , Alternaria kikuchiana, Alternaria longipes (Roth et al 1990).


Jasmonic acid in ozone stressed tomato plants [91]

Ozone activates defence responses in plants according to Zadra and coleagues from the University of Perugia. The researchers fumigated tomato plants with ozone. The highest concentration of jasmonic acid in the leaves of these plants were noted 9 hours after the treatment. Jasmonic acid concentration in leaves of stressed plants increased 13-fold. The level of endogenous methyl-jasmonate was not altered during the experiment.

Bacteria deteriorating tomatoes

Cooling tomatoes to 6C reduces deterioration significantly.
Tomatoes were at first cultivated in South America. The name was "tumatl" meaning "bad taste" and were brought to Europe by the Spanish conquistadores.

At first used as decoration the plant was told later to have erotical activity and was therefore classified by the church as "plant of Satan".
Only after World War II tomatoes became largely used as food in Germany,
Tomatoes are now widely known as base for the production of tomato juice, baked, cooked or peeled tomatoes, as pulp in sauces, in pieces in salads, on pizzas and last but not least as tomato ketchup.
Tomatoes are eaten more than other vegetables[92]
Tomatoes 15,3
Onions 6,0
Cucumber 5,7
Carrots 5,5
Mushrooms 2,5
Beans 1,9
Asparagus 1,3

Industry in Germany has intensified analytical supervision of tomato concentrate used in the production of tomato ketchup and related products.

The effort of quality management triggered by certain publications of test magazines, the HACCP concept and ISO 9.000 resulted in increasing quality and security of tomato pulp used in the production of tomato ketchup and related products.

Pesticides in tomatoes

Pesticides can be present in tomatoes and related products.
Of actual concern are: Farmers should use pesticides only in accordance to users instructions.
All efforts should be undertaken to make tomatoes and relate products safe and keep a high quality standard all over the world.

Developing countries should invest much work to garantee standards of the Codex Alimentarius.


Origine of tomato concentrate

Tomato concentrate is being produced in large scale in Italy in the region of Parma, Grece, Turkey,Spain and China in the Xinjang region.

Meat and poultry, growing market and environment

The production of meat from pigs in Germany has increased since 1960 about 60%. At the same time the number of animal owners has been 85% reduced. This causes a great concentration of animals in some places, creating an environmental problem with growing amount of liquid manure.

Liquid manure is a good fertilizer when used in small amount.In case of intensive animal breeding it turns out to be an environmental factor because of growing quantities of ammonia.

Ammonia is harmful to humans, animals and plants. Excessive ammonia can be transformed to nitrate by bacteria, washed out by rain and pollute the water.

To handle this problem the DIL (Deutsches Institut für Lebensmitteltechnik) made experiments to reduce ammonium and TOC Total Organic Carbon by means of cultivating algae, such as Chlorella and bacteria in presence of small amount of glucose.

In these experiments ammonia had been 80% reduced and TOC up to 90%.
The bacteria involved in these experiments were: Because of growing environment pollution the concentration of Farming and industrialization should be a main concern of governments to allow only an organic growth dictating maximum limits of growth.

Great projects can be distributed in different sectors in order to harmonize with nature.

Garlic

The treatment of hyperlipidemia is a significant value in the prevention of diseases of the blood vascular system. As this treatment can take years it may develop intolerability to the drugs used. Garlic powder can be used to avoid these inconvenience.

As it has been found by the Association of German Physicians (Fachverband Deutscher Allgemeinärzte) garlic preparations such as Sapec and Kwai reduces total cholesterol about 9% an triglycerides about 15% after several month of therapy.

Much has been written about the activity of garlic in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. Holzgartner, Schmidt and Kuhn compared garlic preparations with benzafibrate in a study with 98 patients with primary hyperlipoproteinemia with more than 250 mg/dl of cholesterol, and or triglycerides. The daily doses were 900 mg of garlic powder (standardizes as to 1,3 % alliin) and 600 mg of benzafibrate. The study was divided in the following parts:

Total cholesterol

The garlic treatment reduced the total cholesterol from 282 mg/dl to 210 mg/dl.
The benzafibrate treatment reduced cholesterol from 287 mg/dl to 208 mg/dl.

HDL-cholesterol

HDL-cholesterol had increased in both groups, in the garlic group from 34,3 mg/dl to 48,6 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 35,5 mg/dl to 51,4 mg/dl.

LDL-cholesterol

LDL-Cholesterol was significantly reduced in both groups, in the garlic group from 195,3 mg/dl to 130,2 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 200,8 mg/dl to 130,0 mg/dl.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides were significantly reduced in both groups, in the garlic group from 306,0 mg/dl to 207,5 mg/dl and in the Benzafibrate group from 307,2 mg/dl to 168,6 mg/dl.

Reported garlic smell

The blood lipids decrease with and without resulting garlic body smell is significant only in regard to triglycerides there is a better action when smell is noted.
Hozgartner, Schmidt and Kuhn suggest therefore to adjust the dose from patient to patient so that there is no body smell left. The table below gives the results of the study:

Lipid fraction with smell without smell
Total cholesterol decrease of 83 mg/dl decrease of 58 mg/dl
HDL-cholesterol increase of 18 mg/dl increase of 10 mg/dl
LDL-cholesterol decrease of 77 mg/dl decrease of 51 mg/dl
Triglycerides decrease of 163 mg/dl decrease of 34 mg/dl


Garlic is therefore an ingredient of food used as spice which is proved to have blood lipid reducing action.

Garlic seems to interfere in in the synthesis of cholesterol acting on the HMG-CoA-reductase. Allicin [94]is the active part being originated from Alliin of garlic.

Garlic is also told to have many antioxidants. According to Jean Carper [2] acting antiaging, revs up immune functions, reduces high blood cholesterol, acts as anticoagulant thinning blood, protects aging brains, inhibits cell changes leading to cancer, suppresses free radicals.

Carper advises the intake of half a fresh clove to two or three a day. As supplements 600 to 900 mg of garlic powder per day has heart-protective effects.

About one and a half cloves of garlic block the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines in the stomach.

The activity of garlic depends on the size of the glove and the soil in which it is grown. Garlic grown in selenium rich earth is particularly rich in trace mineral selenium which enhances the antiaging powers.

Carper recommends not to exceed three raw garlic cloves a day. Raw garlic in high dose can be toxic. There is little danger in cooked garlic. Eating more than 20 grams a day of garlic is told to cause gastric bleeding [2].

Antioxidant properties of garlic unveiled [95]

Garlic is known for its strong aroma taste and its antioxidant properties of allicin to scavenge free radicals. The food researchers Vaidya, Ingold and Pratt, found that allicin has to decompose generating sulfenic acid, which is the link between garlic and its health benefits.

According to the authors, other plants of the same family of garlic, such as onions, leeks and shallots and garlic, also contain compounds similar to allicin, but do not have such strong antioxidant properties due to a slower rate of decomposition of the allicin analogs to the active sulfenic acid.

Biological and chemical stability of allicin differ, suggesting other active compounds [96]

Toyohiko Ariga and colleagues 2008 assessed the instability of allicin in water, ethanol and vegetable oil. Allicin from crushed fresh garlic is known to have antibacterial activity. The authors determined the stability of allicin, in different solutions, looking at its antibacterial activity toward Escherichia coli. Allicin was found more stable in 20% alcohol than in water, and very unstable in vegetable oil. The authors suggest the existence of bioactive compounds other than allicin on account of the fact that, in the different extracts, the biological half-life of allicin was longer than the chemical one.

Enzyme alliinase increases healthy properties of garlic [97]

According to Galmarini and colleagues 2007 crushing garlic before cooking can reduce the loss of garlic's healthful properties, such as the in-vitro antiaggregatory activity of human blood platelets. The authors suggest that cooking inactivates the enzyme alliinase which catalyses the formation of allicin (allyl 2-propenylthiosulfinate), which then breaks down to form a variety of healthful organosulfur compound. Crushing or chopping garlic the alliinase can trigger the formation of allicin and its breakdown compounds before being inactivated by heat.

The study of Vaidya 2009 supports Ariga 2008 and Galmarini 2007 which suggest that decomposition products of allicin are the active compounds of the health benefits of garlic.


Selenium [98]

Selenium acts together with garlic. An undersupply of selenium reduces significantly the benefits of garlic. Germany is under supplied with selenium. Fruits, vegetables, and grains growing here are poor in selenium.

Source of selenium Amount of selenium, microg/100g
Bread of German grain 1 to 2
Bread of Canadian grain up to 60


Selenium is toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts of it, forming the active center of certain enzymes, are necessary for the function of all cells in (probably) all living organisms.

In 1996, continuing research showed a positive correlation between selenium supplementation and cancer prevention in humans. Used widely in vitamins and food supplements, in small doses (typically 50 to 200 microg per day for adult humans. Some livestock feeds are fortified as well). [99]

Cancer prevention properties of selenium

Studies on this matter are Shamberger and Frost (1969) [100], Burguera (1990), [101], Clark (1996) [102], Patterson (1997) [103], Fleet (1997 [104], Knekt (1998) [105], Young (1999) [106], Schrauzer (2000) [107], Brooks (2001) [108], and Akbaraly et al (2005) [109].

Protection of the immune system [110]

Melinda A. Beck and colleagues, in a review, found that host nutritional status can influence not only the host response to the pathogen, but can also influence the genetic make-up of the viral genome.

The researchers noted that selenium deficient mice infected with a mild strain of influenza developed severe lung infections. Viral mutations resulted in a more virulent phenotype in the infected mice. This could be linked to the development of emerging new infection diseases such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Bladder cancer prevention properties of selenium [111]

This case-control study suggests an inverse association between serum selenium concentration and bladder cancer risk.

Impact of selenium on mood [112]

Margaret Rayman and colleagues in a study, found no evidence that selenium supplementation benefited mood or quality of life in elderly volunteers.

Selenium supplementation reduces oxidative stress of coronary diseases [113]

Fausta Natella and colleagues found that a supplementation of 110 micrograms of selenium per day as selenium yeast during 10 days prevented postprandial oxidative stress.

Oxidatively modified LDL activates a series of cellular events in the arterial wall ultimately leading to plaque formation. Dietary lipid hydroperoxides that escape from the gastrointestinal barrier can be incorporated into plasma lipoproteins, leading to a modified form of LDL (LDL minus). Selenium supplementation inhibited after-meal increases in oxidatively modified LDL.

Selenium induced a significant decrease in preprandial plasma glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and inhibited the meal-induced increase in GPx activity. Selenium supplementation fully prevented the meal-induced increase in both LDL minus level and LDL susceptibility to oxidation.

Selenium supplementation also avoided the increase of post-prandial malondialdehyde (MDA), a major end product of lipid oxidation. Prior to supplementation MDA plasma levels had been increased by about 10 per cent.

The European recommended daily intake (RDI) of selenium is 65 micrograms. Following EU levies imposed on wheat imports from the US where the soil is rich in selenium, the intake has fallen from 60 to 34 micrograms per day. Dietary source of selenium is oatmeal, cereals and bread, dependent on the selenium content of the soil where the ingredient grains are cultivated. Soil acidity and selenium complexion with iron or aluminium decrease the amount of selenium available to plants.

High-selenium wheat [114]

Average intake of selenium in the UK has fallen from 60 to 34 micrograms per day changing USA and Canadian wheat import to homegrown and EU wheat grown on low selenium soils. The European recommended daily intake (RDI) is 65 micrograms.

The vast majority of the world's population (including that of Australia, with a probable mean plasma/serum level around 89 microg/l. An intake of 200-300 microg/day selenium is being suggested to significantly reduce cancer risk, and Moyad (2002), suggests that an intake of 200 microg/day Se and around 50 mg/day of vitamin E may be beneficial, particularly for current or previous smoker.

The results of the NPC trial suggest that males may have a higher Se requirement than females. Further studies may find optimum adult Se intakes in the range 125-280 microg/day, with means of around 130 (F) and 250 (M). [114]

Se deficiency and sub-optimality are manifested in populations as increased rates of thyroid dysfunction, cancer, severe viral diseases, cardiovascular disease, and various inflammatory conditions. The authors call for a supra-nutritional selenium intake to achieve an optimal cancer protection suggesting to increase the selenium content of wheat by biofortification of wheat with selenate.

Before recommending large-scale fortification of the food supply with Se, it will be necessary to await the results of current SELECT and PRECISE intervention studies. [114]


SELECT [115]

The Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial is currently investigating the effect of selenium and vitamin E supplementation on incidence of prostate cancer.

Data and additional analyses of the SELECT trial were published online December 9, 2008, in JAMA. Among the specific results highlighted, the five-year rate of prostate cancer diagnosis in the four arms of the study was 4.43 percent in the placebo arm of the trial, 4.56 percent in the selenium arm, 4.93 percent in the vitamin E arm (the highest rate, but one that does not show a statistically significant difference from the placebo arm), and 4.56 percent in the selenium plus vitamin E arm.


Selenium and Vitamin E alone or in combination did not prevent prostate cancer in the SELECT study [116]

Selenium and vitamin E supplements, taken either alone or together, did not prevent prostate cancer. This study iwas found a small but not statistically significant increase in the number of prostate cancer cases among the men in the trial taking only vitamin E and a small, but not statistically significant increase in the number of cases of adult onset diabetes in men taking only selenium. Neither of these findings proves an increased risk from the supplements and both may be due to chance.

Data and additional analyses of the SELECT trial were published online December 9, 2008 [117], in JAMA. Among the specific results highlighted, the five-year rate of prostate cancer diagnosis in the four arms of the study was 4.43 percent in the placebo arm of the trial, 4.56 percent in the selenium arm, 4.93 percent in the vitamin E arm (the highest rate, but one that does not show a statistically significant difference from the placebo arm), and 4.56 percent in the selenium plus vitamin E arm. SELECT participants received letters in October 2008 explaining the study review and telling them to stop taking their study supplements. The study was stopped.

The Physicians' Health Study (PHS) II [118]

The Physicians' Health Study (PHS) II, in a final report from Gaziano and colleagues 2008 does not support vitamin E and C for cancer prevention. The authors conclude that in this trial of male physicians, neither vitamin E nor C supplementation reduced the risk of prostate or total cancer. The authors do not support supplementation with vitamin E nor vitamin C for the prevention of cancer in middle-aged and older men.

Use of Selenium and vitamin E not recommended for prostate cancer prevention [119]

Highlighting some controversies on selenium and vitamin E in the prevention of cancer Dr. Peter H.Gann says that physicians should not recommend selenium or vitamin E, or any other antioxidant supplements, to their patients for preventing prostate cancer.

Selenium in soils varies significantly

There are enormous geographical variations in the Se content of soil and food, and hence in Se intakes and concentrations in human blood and tissues.

Thus, it is essential to use local data for monitoring and interpreting Sestatus. The 2000 US Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 55 microg/day. The 1987 Australian RDAs are 70 microg/day for women and 85 microg/day for men. [120]

Combs calls for a regular adult intakes of at least 40 microg/d to support the maximal expression of the selenium enzymes, and perhaps as much as 300 microg/d to reduce risks of cancer.

He writes that low selenium status is likely to contribute to morbidity and mortality due to infectious as well as chronic diseases, and increasing selenium intakes in all parts of the world can be expected to reduce cancer rates. [121]

Research results continue to illustrate the importance of Se in human health, in particular its anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-viral activities. It is evident, due mainly to its poor availability in many soils, that at least a billion people may be Se-deficient.

Furthermore, the vast majority of the world's population would receive well below the level needed to maximise cancer prevention, which is likely to be within the range of 125-280 microg/adult/day, depending on gender, pregnancy and exposure to oxidative stress. [121]

Selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) [122]

In a review article Margaret P. Rayman states that selenium-enriched yeast (Se-yeast) is a common form of Se used to supplement the dietary intake of this important trace mineral.

However, its availability within the European Union is under threat, owing to concerns expressed by the European Community (EC) Scientific Committee on Food that Se-yeast supplements are poorly characterised and could potentially cause the build up of Se in tissues to toxic levels.

The author concludes that Se-yeast from reputable manufacturers is adequately characterised, of reproducible quality, and that there is no evidence of toxicity even at levels far above the EC tolerable upper intake level of 300 microg/d.

Deficiency of Selenium intake in animals [123]

In most European countries, native Se content in grain and forages is very low. Regular use of such feeds can result in Se deficiency, associated with severe disorders like myodystrophy (white muscle disease), exudative diathesis, impaired functions of liver and pancreas and a concomitant depression of production performance and reproductive ability (more information in Sharma et al., 2005 and Surai, 2002).

Another situation is characterised by a marginal shortage of Se, which usually does not exert apparent clinical signs of Se deficiency, but may cause delayed development of immunocompetence and hence raise susceptibility of animals to infectious diseases.

Therefore, the insufficient native Se contents of feedingstuffs and the severe consequences of deficient Se supply give urge to supplement livestock routinely with extra Se.

Selenosis [123]

It is well established that both accidental and long-term overdose of Se result in intoxication of farm animals. In general, a single oral intake of Se dose in range of 1-5 mg kg-1 body weight (bw) may already lead to death.

While high blood Se levels up to 25 mg L-1 are typical to acute selenosis, the chronic Se overdose usually results in blood Se concentrations of 1 to 4 mg L-1. It is generally accepted that animal selenosis may appear when dietary Se content exceeds 5 mg kg-1 feed.

The acute Se toxicity is characterised by abnormal posture, unsteady walk, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, increased pulse and respiration rates, hypotension due to vasodilatation, foamy nasal discharge, prostration and typical garlic smelt of breath due to presence of volatile DMSe in expirated air (Gasmi et al., 1997).

The primary targets of acute Se toxicity in animals appear to be the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, central nervous and hematopoietic systems (Raisbeck, 2000).

The signs of chronic selenosis in cattle include deformations, cracking and loosing of hooves, lameness, stiffness of joints, dullness, lack of vitality, emaciation, loss of hair.

Various forms of blind staggers can develop. In sows, the chronic selenosis is accompanied with reduced performance of reproductive system. Hooves of pigs show breaks similar to those in cattle. Other signs include loss of hair, reddened skin and neurological symptoms. The immune system may be also impaired (Raisbeck, 2000).

In poultry, the intake of feeds containing Se above 5 mg kg-1 results in lower hatchability of eggs due to deformities of embryos. Mature birds seem to tolerate more Se than do pigs or cattle and do not exhibit signs of poisoning other than poor hatchability of their eggs.

Experimental Se intoxication in growing chickens led to severe diarrhoea, dyspnoea and somnolence of birds (Salyi et al., 1993).

Production of selenium enriched yeast [124]

Selenium enriched yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397) is the product of industrial fermentation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 in selenium enriched media. The aerobic fermentation takes place in a medium containing beet or cane molasses, nutritional salts, vitamins and a food grade selenium source leads to the final product.

Live yeast cells absorbs selenium and biochemically transforms it into L (+) selenomethionine and other seleno-related compounds.

The inactivated and dried selenium enriched yeast is subsequently blended with non viable dehydrated yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to standardize the final selenium content. The end product becomes inactivated whole cell yeast containing a minimum of 2000 ppm of total selenium and a maximum of 2% of residual inorganic selenium. At least 60% of the total organic selenium is in the form of selenomethionine (SeMet).

Bibliographic data show that organic selenium as selenium enriched yeast is comparable if not better than inorganic selenium in providing for a higher blood and milk selenium concentration and GSH-px activity.

The beneficial effects obtained with selenium enriched yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 compared with inorganic selenium as feed additive are the following: These trials show that selenium enriched yeast of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397 can be used as an alternative to inorganic selenium (like sodium selenite (Na2SeO3) and sodium selenate (Na2SeO4) at a maximum content of selenium in the complete feedingstuff of 0.5 ppm (Directive 70/524/EC)) currently authorised without time-limit.

FDA approved the use of selenium enriched yeast in animal nutrition from September 3, 2003 as a source of selenium for beef and dairy cattle (with previous approval given in 17 July 2002 for use in feed for swine, turkeys, and chickens). The product included a maximum of 2% of inorganic selenium.

In Canada, selenium enriched yeast (Saccharaomyces cerevisiae NCYC R397) is registered and approved for use in animal nutrition from March 2004 by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA ).

Selenium enriched yeast and drip loss of meat [123]

Less drip loss of meat (poultry, pigs)

A significant reduction of drip loss by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast was seen in broiler study 2, whereas selenite was significantly less effective than Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast.

In broiler study 3 Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast did not influence drip loss in comparison to the unsupplemented control group.

Expressible moisture in muscle was significantly increased by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast in broiler study 4. In broiler study 5 the drip loss was significantly influenced by Se level and Se source (Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast and selenite), Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast being more effective than selenite. But there was no unsupplemented control group. Pig studies 4 and 5 did not show any significant effect of Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast on drip loss.

Conclusion

A reduction of drip loss by Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast could only be shown in two broiler studies; in both studies selenite was less effective. In a broiler study as in the two pig experiments Sel-Plex selenium enriched yeast did not exert any influence on drip loss.

The FEEDAP Panelcon cludes that the effects observed are not consistently demonstrated and, if so, the effect is likely due to Se itself and not to the Se source.


Selenium position statement of Australian Cancer Council [125]

The Cancer Council Australia in a position statement on selenium supports the National Health and Medical Research Council recommended dietary intake of 65 microg/day for men and 55 microg/day for women with an upper intake limit of 400 microg/day.

Some studies suggest that selenium may be inversely associated with prostate cancer and colorectal cancer. The evidence of a protective role of selenium in other types of cancers is weak and inconsistent.

The Cancer Council Australia does not support the use of health claims on food labels that suggest selenium protects against the development of cancer.


Elevated serum selenium is associated with elevated serum lipids [126]

Selenium, known for its antioxidant properties may, however, affect several cardiometabolic risk factors, such as glucose homeostasis and lipid concentrations.

Joachim Bleys and colleagues 2008 examined the relation of serum selenium concentrations with serum lipids. They found that elevated serum selenium was associated with elevated serum concentrations of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triacylglycerols, apo B, and apo A-I among US adults, a population with high selenium intake. The authors call for more experimental studies to determine cause and effect of the relations of elevated serum selenium and serum lipids.

Seafood

Hake

The term hake refers to fish in either of: An old European source mentions a hake that was transplanted from the coast of Ireland to Cape Cod. [127]

Tuna

Albacore is harvested by US vessels trolling with artificial lures on or near the surface and with pole and line. These same vessels use bait to attract albacore wherein they are hooked with a jigging pole off the stern and landed individually. Barbless hooks are used in this fishery. The absences of nets ensures the fishery is "dolphin free". [128]

Pacific albacore, Long finned albacore (Thunnus alalunga)
Black fin tuna (Thunnus atlanticus)
Bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus)
Bluefin tuna, Atlantic tuna, Californian bluefin, horse mackerel (Thunnus thynnus)

Others:
Monkfish, anglerfish (Lophius piscatorius) It is a bone fish.

Common sole, black sole, Dover sole (Solea vulgaris vulgaris)
Sprat(Sprattus sprattus)
Brown shrimp, common shrimp (Crangon crangon)
Black tiger (Panaeus monodon)
Deep-sea prawn (Pandalus borealis)
Dublin Bay prawn, langoustine, Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus)
Squid, cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis)
Whale, cetacean (Cetacea spec.)

Salmon

There are different grades of fat content. The low fat grade is being sold in Europe. The medium fat grade is used to produce smoked salmon and the grade of high fat content is sold in Asia. Since 1995 there is also the Omega-3-salmon available.

Greatest producers of salmon are Canada and Norway. There is a great variety on market, depending on their origin: Atlantic salmon, graved salmon from Sweden, Irish salmon. The variety of Norwegian salmon is Salmo salar. More than one fourth of the Norwegian salmon is bred in cages in the fjords. This form of concentrated fish farming represents an environment problem.

In order to avoid disease, boils, bacteria and moulds pesticides are used. To avoid fish louse the pesticide ivermictin is used. Virotic infections are under control with vaccination by means of feed. Ivermectin kill not only the fish louse but also the worms living in the sediments of the bottom of the Water and which is an important feed source free living fish.

Overfeed and enormous amounts of excrements trigger the development of bacteria of putrefaction and toxic algae One of the best known fish in the history of fishery was codfish (Gadus spec.).

Codfish had been an important basic nutrient. It was preserved through drying or salting.

Salmon an trout is endangered by a multi-host parasite [129]

The infectious pathogen, a rosette-like intracellular parasite Sphaerothecum destruens carried by invasive cyprinids threatens Stocks of Atlantic salmon along with varieties of domestic brown trout.

In 2005 Dr. Gozlan warned that the parasite poses a severe threat to some freshwater fish species in Europe. The parasite causes high morbidity and mortality in North American salmonid species including Atlantic salmon, brown and rainbow trout. [130]

According to DNA findings conducted by the authors, the European strain of the parasite was found to present a degree of isolation toward the North American agent. It is found on healthy invasive fishes which spread the agent to sympatric populations of native fishes. Freshwater fish such as bream, carp and roach are endangered by the parasite.

The authors call to develop more sensitive detection tools of the rosette agent to counter future outbreaks which may pose a risk for fisheries and commercial aquaculture. Movement of fish for stocking purposes may further facilitate its spread. The decrease of the number of the sunbleak (Leucaspius delineatus) in parts of Europe is to be associated with the spread of a healthy carrier, the Asian topmouth gudgeon.

Codfish and the church in the Middle Ages

Dried and salted codfish is today still being consumed in large scale due to the activity of the Roman Catholic church. In the Middle Ages the Church imposed their believers days of fasting. Sexual act and meat was forbidden, however no restriction on "cold food" was known. Fish and whale living in cold water were therefore allowed.

Whale was eaten on "slender days", on all Friday because this was the day in which Jesus was cruzified, the forty days of fasting and a couple of holy days leaving almost no days for the consumption of meat. Basques as leading nation on codfish at that time became wealthy.

Codfish became a religious cult object as a symbol of religious life. That is the reason why in many Catholic countries dried salty codfish is being traditionally eaten on Good Friday.

Codfish as basic nutrient

Codfish had been an important source of proteins for the islands of the Caribbean Sea. A supply shortfall of salty codfish due to rotten political relationship between United States and England caused th death of starvation of 15.000 slaves in Jamaica during 1780 and 1785.

With the industrial revolution a growing market for bottom dwelling fish arose in Great Britain. Codfish, haddock, plaice and later fish and chips developed as important food for workers in town and is today still a traditional food consisting of fried fish nuggets and French fries.

In the 18th Century cod liver oil was used in Great Britain to cure rheumatism. In the 19th Century fish liver oil was used in case of tuberculosis, malnutrition and other diseases related with poverty.

During the second world war liver oil was given to pregnant women, children under 5 years f age and persons over 40 as malnutrition was feared by the Ministry of Nutrition.Fish liver oil is not being used today because of its taste.

History of codfish fishery

The Vikings were the first population strongly united to codfish fishery. Their boats sailed from Norway to Iceland, Greenland and the coast of Canada following shoals of Atlantic codfish (Gadhus morhua) which they salted preserving it. Due to its very low concentration of fat and its white flesh is codfish the best raw product for salty and dried fish.

Between 985 and 1011 the Viking Thorwald and his son Erik the Red sailing from Norway settled in Island, Greenland and the coast of Canada leaving places to dry the codfish.

Later on Basques specialized on codfish, sailing as far as the banks of North America where the cold water of Greenland meet the Gulf Stream. In these regions the water was extremely rich on codfish.

For long time the Basques could hide the secret of their fishing grounds and became wealthy feeding the whole Mediterranean region with Atlantic salty codfish. Miguel de Cervantes cites codfish in Don Qixote (1605-1616) being called as pollack in Castila and salt codfish in Andalusia.

As the Basques disposed of plenty of salt their codfish was very stable. That is why the Basques could make longer journeys as the Vikings.

John Cabots in 1497 discovered the secret fishing grounds of the Basques on his first voyage to America. A second trip was of no return. No one knows what happened.

The resulting competition between nations fighting for the fishing grounds and later on the introduction of the steam boats with ground nets nearly exterminated the codfish.

The second world war a time to recover for codfish in the North Atlantic because of the intensive war activity. As soon as war was over big trawlers started fishery on large scale.

In 1822 a treaty between France, Germany, Netherlands, Denmark and Great Britain in Den Haag established for the first time a tree miles of territorial waters valid for the North Sea.

A treaty between England and Denmark in 1901 declared the sea around Island as international water with the exclusion of a three mile zone . Island was at that time a colony of Denmark and was to weak to make any opposition to that treaty.

As reaction to intruders Island started a well organized coast gard to counter German and British trawlers which entered the three miles zone. A further effort to protect marine species was a close cooperation with the International Council for Exploration of the Seas (IREM) which controls the size of the fish population of endangered species.
The British trawlers installed in the beginning of 1928 radio transmitters to warn their colleague with the message "Grandmother is not feeling good" whenever a coast gard boat had left the harbor.

In 1944 Island became independent from Denmark and could now extend the territorial waters to four miles.

In 1945 The USA under President Harry Truman proclaimed the claims at the mineral raw materials of the continental shelf in order to protect oil reserves.
In addition these claims were also risen by all other Latin American countries giving support to the international recognition of territorial waters.

The first codfish war

As the population of haddock and codfish decreased Island extended in 1958 their territorial waters to 12 miles. This started a real Codfish War between England and Island. Finally in February 1961 Great Britain recognized the twelve miles waters.

The second codfish war

In 1971 Island announced the extention of their waters up to 50 miles. The second codfish war began. The Island coast gard used to cut off the nets oh the trawlers. Fish was the only wealth of Island which remained therefore unchanged in its position. Because of the intervention of the NATO Great Britain was forced to recognize the 50 miles zone.

The third codfish war

The population of codfish still decreased despite the 50 miles. Eighteen years old cod fish got extremely rare. Only fifteen years old specimens were caught. Island announced therefore beginning with the 15. October 1975 the extention of their territorial waters to two hundred miles. It came to 53 ship collision.

In February 1976 the European Community proclaimed the 200 miles territorial waters ending thus the third codfish war. Spain and Portugal were deeply affected by the 200 miles regulation because their waters do not bear good fishes. Nevertheless the population of codfish decreased and many regulations were issued.

In 1992 fishing of codfish in North Atlantic was forbidden. A recovery of the population will take about 15 years.

The European Union is going to reduce the catch quota of codfish in the Kattegat about 58%, haddock in the Irish Sea about 52% and sole in the North Sea about 25%.

According to the commissioner of the EU Franz Fischler at 6.12.01 the situation is alarming and everything should be undertaken to avoid a complete extermination of some species due to overfishing. From the number of ground fishes in EU fishing waters in the 70th only 10% are left in the late 2001. [131]

EU fish quota causes 40%-60% of fish being dumped [132]

European Union quotas strictly limit the amount of fish that vessels can bring back to port. Quota exceeding catch is being dumped. most of it dead. Fisher boats in the North Sea, catching a species or size of fish which is above their quota and have to throw it back, however less than 1 percent survives.

The EU estimates that between 40% and 60% of fish caught by trawlers in this area is dumped back into the sea. According to Green Peace 186 million fish caught in UK waters in 2006, 117 million of them were thrown away dead as waste.

According to Enever, Revill and Grant 2007, discards in the English Channel, Western Approaches, Celtic and Irish Seas are about 63% by number and 35% by weight of all fish caught. [133]

World Wildlife Fund's Helen McLachla calls for selective gear to avoid unwanted catch. Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) looks after such selective gears, analysing results of the Rhode Island design as a cod-conservation tool allowing to fish for haddock and not harming cod. [134]

US Navy may continue sonar training at California harmes marine animals [135]

US Navy sonar training goes on, despite harming marine mammals. Environmental groups, such as the Natural Resources Defense Council n (NRDC), brought a lawsuit against the US navy, alleging that military sonar harms or even kill 37 species of marine mammals, such as sea lions and blue whales, disturbing their ability to navigate and communicate. Sonar has been linked to substantial and irreparable harm to marine mammals, like mass strandings and hemorrhaging around the brain and ears, and symptoms akin to a severe case of "the bends", the illness that can kill scuba divers who surface quickly from deep water, indicating that sonar alters their dive patterns.

NRDC is working nationally and internationally to establish strict regulations on sonar use so that whales and other marine mammals don't have to die for practice.

The lawsuit involved 14 training exercises off the California coast that began in February 2007 and ends in January 2009.

According to Chief Justice John Roberts, who prepared the judgement, the overall public interest favoured the Navy, which needs realistic training with active sonar to respond to the threat posed by enemy submarines. This outweighs environment interests. President George W. Bush interfered in the judicial process citing the national security necessity of the training and exempting the Navy from the environmental laws.

The military sonar and whale mortality

The NRDC reports that the military employs two types of active sonar: mid-frequency and low-frequency. Low-frequency sonar travels enormous distances in seawater. During testing off the California coast, noise from SURTASS LFA, the Navy's main low-frequency system, was detected across the breadth of the North Pacific. By the Navy's own estimates, even 300 miles from the source these sonic waves can retain an intensity of 140 decibels. This is a hundred times more intense than the level known to alter the behavior of large whales. Mid-frequency sonar is more widely used and has been associated with mortalities of whales.

Anisakiasis

Anisakis is a nematode (hairworm) which attack fish and live in their body.Anisakis simplex is common in the Seas of the North. The worm is being found in many fishes such as herring, codfish, mackerel, pollack and sprat.

Anisakis can live only in sea water. The worm is uncoloured almost transparent. It resists to 1% sulphuric acid for a period of 6 Days. Deep-freezing at -30° kills immediately th worm. Frozen food is therefor safe of Anisaki.

Life cyclus of Anisakis

The parasite must go through hosts to complete its life cyclus.
The male expelles eggs of 0,02 mm diameters.Larvas of 0,25 mm come out of the eggs after some days. To survive the larvas have to find a host in the next weeks.

The first host

As first host the Anisakis invades small crabs such as Copepoda and Euphausiacea where the first sloughing 4 to 6 mm takes place.

Infection of fish

A fish is infected by ingesting the first host in form of small crabs. The larva of Anisakis remains unchanged in a capsule in the stomach and intestines of the fish. About 0,7% of the larva get into the muscles of the belly piece.

Liver hard fish roe and other organs are seldom infected by the larva. However as the fish dies the larva abandons its capsule and migrates to the muscles. The fish should therefore opened and the innards schould be taken out as soon as possible to avoid migration of the Anisaki larva to the muscles.

Sometimes when the sea is ruff and the tripulation is seasick work is not done and the fish is left unprocessed waiting for better weather. In this case Anisakis larvae migrate to the muscles, being an unpleasent finding later on when it is consumed.

Sexual maturity

The Anisakis larva can only achieve sexual maturity in a mammal host such as whale, delphin or seal.

Functional Food

Mass market brands

The consumer is forced to look after packaged staple foods at fair price, which are found in the mass production segment with benefits located at daily needs. Non-essential products such as bottled water, drinking yoghurts and chewing gum are good items to spare money.

Health benefits labelling in Canada, E.U., and U.S. Emphasise on scientific credibility [136]

Sanders and colleagues 2005 stress that successful and responsible global introduction of probiotic and prebiotic products requires labelling for health benefits that meets consumer needs, adheres to regulatory standards and does not overextend scientific evidence. They also note that existing regulations emphasis on scientific credibility of health claims. The authors also analyse the value of different types of evidence of efficacy and examine the imitations of in vitro, animal and human studies used for efficacy substantiation for probiotics and prebiotics.

Health claims in the United States may be misleading to consumer [137] [138]

Hasler 2008 Health claims in the United States have been a topic of intense controversy since the mid-1980s. Health claims are based on a very high standard of scientific evidence and significant scientific agreement. Hasler says that US health claims regulations had limited success and may be misleading to consumers.

Premarket authorization and substantiation of health claims on foods [139]

L'abbé and colleagues 2008 analyse the regulatory framework of health claims on foods in Canada and compare it with international approaches, and how risk-reduction claims for serious diseases are managed in the United States, European Union and Australia, stressing the need for premarket authorization and the requirement for a high level of certainty in substantiating claims.

Health claims in Europe: new legislation and PASSCLAIM for substantiation [140]

The EU regulation on nutrition and health claims from 2007 will be fully implemented by January 2010. It includes reduction of disease risk claims. A community list of permitted and rejected claims will be defined. To achieve this, the European Commission supported the project, "Process for the Assessment of Scientific Support for Claims on Foods" (PASSCLAIM), with the main purpose to define a set of generally applicable criteria for the scientific substantiation of health claims on foods.

Foodwatch says there is no difference of the effect of Actimel compared with normal yoghurt [141] [142]

Foodwatch says that Danone makes a mountain out of a molehill suggesting that Actinimel protects from cold and boots health. Foodwatch believes that the company sells a common product using excessive advertising. [141]

Alexa Meyer, from the Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria, comparing probiotic drinks and normal yoghurt, found no significant difference in the effect of Actimel and normal yoghurt with living bacteria. The nutritional researcher recommends to get enough sleep, wash hands often and eat a daily bowl of yoghurt. She says this would activate more active germ-fighting white blood cells,enhancing the immune system, probably due to the presence of Lactobacillus bulgarius, from any normal yoghurt, which has half the price of Actimel. [143]

This is being supported by Bethold Koletzko from the University of Munich, Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Munich, Germany in case of diarrhoea advices parents to give their children yoghurt with living bacteria. It does not necessarily be Actinimel, but may also be other yoghurts.

The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) is an independent regulator for advertisements, sales promotion and direct marketing in the UK. According to Spiegel Online one TV spot from Actimel was blocked by the ASA in 2006 and one in 2008. [142]

However, a measurable health benefits linked to the presence of live Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. Bulgaricus was reported by Koletzko and colleagues 2005 yoghurt. In this review Koletzko and colleagues say that it was clearly demonstrated that yoghurt containing viable bacteria improves lactose digestion and eliminates symptoms of lactose intolerance, and clearly fulfil the current concept of probiotics. [144]

Scientific evidences of probiotic healt effects [145]

Despite controversies, there are many published research articles which say probiotics have positive health effects. Here some of them are presented:

Probiotics found to be beneficial for health [145]

Parvez and colleagues 2006 state, in a review of probiotics that the beneficial effect of lactic acid bacteria consumption include improved intestinal tract health; enhanced immune system, synthesis and enhanced bioavailability of nutrients; reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance, reduced allergy in susceptible individuals; and reduction of risk of certain cancers. Modified gut pH, production of antimicrobial compounds, interfering with the binding and receptor sites of pathogens, stimulating immunomodulatory cells, and producing lactase are some of the mechanisms how it works.
The authors concluded that probiotics are important as a part of a healthy diet for human and may become a safe, cost effective, approach against microbial infection.

German review of probiotic studies [146]

According de Vrese and Schrezenmeir 2008 the probiotics are defined in Gernay as viable microorganisms, sufficient amounts of which reach the intestine in an active state and thus exert positive health effects. Such bacteria are Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, L. reuteri, bifidobacteria and certain strains of L. casei or the L. acidophilus-group, Escherichia coli strain Nissle 1917, certain enterococci (Enterococcus faecium SF68) and the probiotic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii. Health benefits are the (transient) modulation of the intestinal microflora of the host and the capacity to interact with the immune system directly or mediated by the autochthonous microflora, are basic mechanisms.

The authors list well-established probiotic effects: Help to cure rotavirus infections or antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Reduce the cancer-promoting enzymes and putrefactive metabolites in the gut. Prevent unspecific intestinal complaints in healthy people. Produce beneficial effects on inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, such as Helicobacter pylori infection. Normalize stool and stool consistency in subjects suffering from obstipation or an irritable colon. Prevent or alleviate allergies and atopic diseases in infants. Prevent respiratory tract infections (common cold, influenza) and other infectious diseases as well as treatment of urogenital infections.

Probiotics and dietetics practice [147]

Douglas and Sanders in a review of 2008 cite enhanced immune function, improved colonic integrity, decreased incidence and duration of intestinal infections, down-regulated allergic response, and improved digestion as benefits of regular consumption of probiotics.

The authors stress that Information on probiotic species, applications for specific strains, dosages and forms, safety, and shelf life is not sufficiently worked out to be used by most food and nutrition professionals. The authors present science and practice-based guidelines to enhance clinician and client understanding of probiotics and prebiotics.

Lactobacillus casei reduce the incindence of diarrhoea compared with traditional yoghurt [148]

Pedone and colleagues 2000 found that supplementation of healthy children with milk fermented by yoghurt cultures and Lactobacillus casei strain DN-114 001reduces incidence of acute diarrhoea compared with traditional yoghurt. The authors underline the additional benefit of L. casei in acute diarrhoea in children compared with standard yoghurt.

Lactobacillus casei DN-114 001 protects rats from rotavirus [149]

Guérin-Danan and colleagues 2001 found that food supplementation with milk fermented by Lactobacillus casei DN-114 001 protects suckling rats from Group A rotavirus diarrhoea, which is the leading cause of diarrhoea among children aged 3-36 mo worldwide. The authors infected rats with SA11 rotavirus at d 5 (RF group). The suckling rats which had been early supplemented with fermented milk by the DN-114 001 presented decreased clinical signs of diarrhoea, rotavirus infection prevention, and reduction of histologic lesions of the small intestine, leaving the number of mucin cells unchanged.

Fermented milk effect in young children in transition countries [150]

Branca and Rossi 2002, comparing the effects of a traditional yogurt, and a yoghurt with Lactobacillus casei. found that fermented dairy products change the equilibrium and metabolism of the intestinal microflora and may have beneficial effects to humans. The authors report that the number of enterococci in faecal samples increased with traditional yoghurt, and the markers of proteolytic fermentation, represented by branched-chain and long-chain fatty acids, decreased. Ingestion of milk fermented with yoghurt bacteria and Lactobacillus casei the lactobacilli count in faeces increased, and harmful enzyme activity of beta-glucuronidase and beta-glucosidase decreased, this effect being most accentuated in infants where these enzymes were initially unusually high.

Probiotics in treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea [151]

Kligler and Cohrssen 2008 point out that probiotics may prevent and treat antibiotic-associated diarrhea and acute infectious diarrhea, be useful in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome, and atopic dermatitis in children. Bacteria often used as probiotics are Lactobacillus sp., Bifidobacterium sp., Streptococcus thermophilus, and Saccharomyces boulardii, in a dosages range from 5 to 10 billion living bacteria per day for children, and from 10 to 20 billion for adults. Probiotics taken orally should be resistant to acid and bile so that it can pass through the upper gastrointestinal tract and must be taken regularly to maintain colonization, otherwise they will be gone after 1 to 2 weeks.

Probiotics role in the health of children [152]

Kligler, Hanaway and Cohrssen 2007 stress that Probiotics are useful to reduce the risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and the duration of acute infectious diarrhea, are effective in preventing community-acquired diarrheal infections, reduce the risk of necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants. Help in the prevention and treatment of atopic dermatitis were noted. The authors hypothesize that the exact strain used is less important, important is the administration of a high dosis of living bacteria , typically 5 to 10 billion per day or higher.

A probiotic effect is strictly restricted to one defined strain [153]

Seksik and colleagues 2008 reviewed the literature related to the use of probiotics ion the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The authors concluded that a probiotic effect is strictly restricted to one defined strain and cannot be generalized from one to another. According to Seksik and colleagues, some probiotic drugs are useful in pouchitis (VSL3), and in the prevention of recurrence of ulcerative colitis (Escherichia coli Nissle 1917), however, efficacy of probiotic drugs in Crohn's disease and dietary ecological treatments is still low.

Immunologic effects of probiotics

Deshpande, Rao and Patole 2007 reported in a review that the risk of necrotising enterocolitis, one of the most common gastrointestinal problems in premature babies, may be cut by 74 per cent by probiotic supplementation. [154]

Carlo Caffarelli and Sergio Bernasconi stressed that more research is needed, because each bacterial strain used as probiotics is believed to have specific immunomodulatory properties. Different probiotics, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, L casei GG, L bulgaricus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, B breve, B infants, B lactis, Streptococcus thermophilus, and Saccharomyces boulardii. Present different imunologic effects and cannot be generalised. [155]

Amanda Cox and colleagues 2007 studied the Lactobacillus fermentum VRI 003 (PCC)strain on its effect to boost the immune health of high performance athletes such as long distance runners. The authors found that the bacterium boosted T cells and activated the immune system, reducing the number of days and severity of respiratory illness of these athletes. [156]

Antiallergic effect of probiotics

Kamal Ivory and colleagues 2008 studied the antiallergic effect of Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS). The authors found that the bacterium modulated the immune response to grass pollen, and helped hay fever sufferers. [157]

Tamura and colleagues 2006 studied the antiallergic effect of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) in fermented milk on patients allergic to Japanese cedar pollen. The authors found that Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota (LcS) did not prevent Nasal and ocular allergic symptoms, but may delay the occurrence of allergic symptoms. [158]

Xiao and colleagues 2006 studied the antiallergic effects of another bacterium, the Bifidobacterium longum BB536 in the treatment of Japanese cedar pollinosis. The authors found a significant decreases in rhinorrhea and nasal blockage in patients receiving the BB536 strain which was caused probably through the modulation of Th2-skewed immune response. [159]

Other effects of probiotics

Bekkali and colleagues 2008 studied the effect of a probiotic mixture on children aged 4-16 years with constipation. The probiotic mixture (Ecologic Relief) containing Bifidobacteria (B.) bifidum, B. infantis, B. longum, Lactobacilli (L.) casei, L. plantarum and L. rhamnosus was used. The authors found that a mixture of probiotics, has positive effects on symptoms of constipation and call for more studies on this matter. [160]

Hickson and colleagues 2007 found that L casei, L bulgaricus, and S thermophilus can reduce the incidence of antibiotic associated diarrhoea and C difficile associated diarrhoea. The authors recommend such mixture for elderly patients [161]. These findings are, however being challenged by Wilcox and Sandoe. They are concerned about the conclusion of Hickson that a probiotic yoghurt drink, given during and after antibiotic treatment, has the potential to decrease morbidity, healthcare costs, and mortality if used routinely in patients aged over 50. Wilcox and Sandoe say that the data are not widely applicable. [162]

Probiotics and allergy in Japan [163]

Kirin Group discovered Lactobacillus KW (Lactobacillus paracasei), a lactic acid bacteria which can reduce severness of symptoms of allergies such as hay fever added to foods. The Japanese Society of Allergology researchers found that this strain improved the Th1/Th2 balance.

The results of Wang et al. suggest that the ingestion of LP-33-fortified fermented milk for 30 days can effectively and safely improve the quality of life of patients with allergic rhinitis.

Camel milk [164]

A team of inspectors of the European Union will verify food safety of production of camel milk in the United Arab Emirates UAE in order to allow the selling of camel milk to Europe. For this, the production must be increased. Arabian camels produce produce eight litres of milk whereas a cow produces up to 40 litres/day. To increase milk yield the UAE looks at Turkmeni dromedary camels which produce nearly 50 per cent more milk than the UAE's.

Pakistan and Afghanistan camels have the highest yields of milk, up to 30 litres per day. The Bactrian camel, produces between 2.5-5 litres per day. The dromedary, one-humped camel, produces an average of 6-9 litres per day. Intensive breeding of cows has created animals that can produce 40 litres per day.

Camel milk marketed as healthy food

Tests have shown the milk has less than half the fat and 40 per cent of the cholesterol of cows' milk - as well as three times the vitamin C.

It can be digested by people who are intolerant to lactose, and can even ease food allergies. All this, Emirates Industry believes, gives it the scope to be marketed as a health food.

Camels can endure 21 days without drinking water and may feed on low-quality fodder and still produce milk. These animals are therefore an option for food security in hot and dry areas...

Lactation of camels

Gestation of camels takes thirteen month. The mother must stay with the calf and raise it herself, otherwise it will stop producing milk, whereas a dairy cow can be separated from her calf when it is born and still gives milk for six to nine months. A mother camel can feed her calf and can be milked for twelve to eighteen months.

Water deprivation impact on camel milk [165]

Bekele et al. 2011 report that camels maintain milk volume during water deprivation for about 1 week, but they produced less milk during the second week. Osmolality increased during the first 4 days of water deprivation, but remained at this level during another 12 days without watering. Milk lactose content did not increase. The authors stress that camels do not dilute their milk when dehydrated.

Camel brucellosis in Sudan [166]

Omer and colleagues 2010 assessed brucellosis in Sudan. Seroprevalence in camels milk and serum samples was 37.5% and 9% in abattoir workers. Brucella abortus biovar 6 was isolated from camels and cows, suggesting that camels were infected from cattle which is the primary host of Brucella abortus.

Q fever in Iranian camels [167]

Rahimi et al. 2011 used polymerase chain reaction to determine the contamination of Coxiella burnetii as source of Q fever infection in dairy bovine, ovine, caprine, and camel herds in Iran. Using polymerase chain reaction in bulk milk samples, the authors found positive rections for Coxiella burnetii in 3.2% bovine milk samples, 5.7% sheep milk samples, 4.5% goat milk samples and 1.4% camel milk samples. The authors call for more studies on prevalence and epidemiology of Q fever in Iran.

Coxiella burnetii shedding seems to occur frequently in milk taken from asymptomatic dairy cows. The number of Coxiella shed in milk is generally low. The phase I vaccine prevented abortion and greatly decreased the shedding of C. burnetii in milk. [168]

Fretz et al 2007 report the results of a screening of Q-fever agent in bulk milk samples from cows, sheep and goats and in shell eggs produced in and imported into Switzerland. In this study 4.7 of the samples of bovine milk samples tested positive for Coxiella burnetii by nested PCR. Ovine and caprine bulk milk samples, and shell eggs were also found to be negative for C. burnetii. The authors concluded that Coxiella burnetii infection in cattle is frequent. [169]

Goat exposure was associated with increased seroprevalence of Q fever counting up to 26.3% in veterinaries and farm workers in southern Taiwan, and 43.8% goats tested poitive for Coxiella burnetii. Chang et al. 2010 concluded that goats the most important risk of human contamination with Ccoxiella burnetii and health education could help to reduce Coxiella burnetii risk infection in southern Taiwan. [170]

Camelpox [171]

Camelpox is a contagious skin disease of camelids caused by camelpox virus (CMLV) and is characterized by mild local skin infection and less common severe systemic infections going ahead with morbidity, mortality, loss of weight and reduction in milk yield. The virus has close genetic relatedness to variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, and carrying genes responsible for host immune evasion mechanisms say Bhanuprakash et al 2010.

GB virus C in Arabian camels [172]

GB virus C (GBV-C), formerly known as Hepatitis G virus (HGV), is known to infect humans, but is not known to cause human disease. Abu Odeh 2011 found 18.2% of dromedary Arabian camels in the United Arab Emirates positive for GBV-C , however, all camels milk samples tested negative. Sequence analysis of the 5'-UTR using isolates from the 4 camels revealed the prevalence of the European/North American genotype 2.

Composition of camel milk [173]

Konuspayeva et al.2009 describe the camel milk composition from dromedary and Bactrian species Asian values were higher in all the components, except ash, because of the predominance of the Bactrian camel in this region. Fat content of camel milk of East Africa was higher than milk from other areas of Africa and Western Asia. Camel milk from Kazakhstan hat higher content of fat and protein but reduced lactose compared to references from Central Asia. Tables of composition of camel milk may be found at:
http://ipac.kacst.edu.sa/eDoc/2010/190507_1.pdf
http://www.dairyforall.com/camel-milk-nutrients.php
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/X6528E/X6528E03.htm


NLEA: Nutrition Labeling and Education Act 1990. Functional Foods in USA

The NLEA act of the FDA contains the definition of model claims for functional foods:


Nutrient-relation to disease Model claim
   
Fat and heart disease Diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol
  may reduce the risk of heart disease
Calcium and Osteosporosis Regular exercise and a healthy diet with
  enough calcium helps teen and young
  adult white and Asian women maintain
  good bone health and may reduce
  their high risk of osteosporosis
Sodium and hypertension Diet low in sodium may reduce
  the risk of blood pressure, a disease
  associated with many factors.
Dietary fiber and heart disease Low-fat diets rich in
  fiber-contain grain products, fruits,
  and vegetables may reduce the
  risk of some types of cancer,
  disease associated with many factors.

Dried plums reduces bone loss in rats [174]

Dried plums are a rich source of polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, improving bone density, microstructure and biomechanics in female animal models of osteopenia.

Brenda Smith and colleagues determine the amount of dried plums which are necessary to decrease bone loss, and looked its mechanism of action. Gonadal hormone deficient male rats were used for the study.

The authors found hat at doses of 15% of the diet or higher, the dried plum supplementation totally prevented the induced decrease in bone mineral density in the rats. At lower doses, modest protective results were found.

The beneficial effects of dried plums were attributed in part to a decrease in osteoclastogenesis via down-regulation of RANKL and stimulation of bone formation mediated by IGF-I.


Colas associated with low bone mineral density (BMD) in older women [175]

Katherine L. Tucker, in the Framingham Osteoporosis Study, found that cola intake was associated with significantly lower BMD at each hip site, but not the spine, in women but not in men. Similar results were seen for diet cola and, although weaker, for decaffeinated cola.

No significant relations between noncola carbonated beverage consumption and BMD were observed. Total phosphorus intake was not significantly higher in daily cola consumers than in nonconsumers; however, the calcium-to-phosphorus ratios were lower.

The authors concluded that intake of cola, but not of other carbonated soft drinks, is associated with low BMD in women.


Minerals

The active minerals in our body are :
Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Vanadium
Zinc


Phytochemical activity of fruits and vegetables


Carotenoids

There are about 500 coloured components which are classified as carotenoids. Only six of them are found in appreciable amounts the human body.

Vitamin E

It is found in vegetable oils and cod liver oil.

Vitamin C

It is found in citrus fruits, kiwi, strawberry, melon, tomato, green pepper, potato.


Flavonoids

They are a class over 4.000 phytochemicals that are responsible for ultra-violet protection within the plant and which may have a protective action against chronic diseases. Soybeans and their products are rich in isoflavonoids.


Glucosinolates

They are found in brassica vegetables. When the plant is damaged by cutting or chewing the glucosinolates break down into substances with biological activity giving the characteristic smell of watercress which is only released when the leaves are crushed or cut.

Examples of Glucosinolates are sulphorophane from broccoli which is active against cancerous bowel cells, and sinigrin from brussels sprout making cancerous cells to die.

It seems unlikely that the most beneficial source of these compounds for the majority of the population will be from single-substance supplements, but rather from consumption of a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. Many of these phytochemicals are not destroyed by processing, but may actually become more readily available for digestion.

Beta-carotene for example is more readily available from processed tomatoes and canned apricots then from fresh fruits. The decay of vitamin C in frozen peas and vegetables is slower as the decay after days by normal temperatures.

A better understanding of the need to eat a wide variety of fruit and vegetables, both fresh and processed may turn out to be a more important message than eating a certain number of portions a day[177].

Definition of functional Food according to European consensus publication

The European consensus publication of ILS an European-coordinated concerted action FUFOSE [178] consider as context:

A food can be regarded as "functional" if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a way which is relevant to either the state of well-being and health or the reduction of the risk of a disease.

Beneficial effects can be:
1- Maintenance or promotion of a state of well-being or health.
2- Reduction of the risk of a pathologic process or a disease.


A food can be made "functional"by: 1- applying any technological or biotechnological means to increase the concentration of, add, remove or modify a particular component as well as to:
2- improve its bioavailability.

Promising range of functional foods are:
Lycopenein tomatoes, fruits and vegetables containing vitamins and secondary phytocompounds like phytoestrogenic substances with cancer protective activity.

Vitamin A, provitamin A, vitamin C and E blocking free radicals.

Soluble and insoluble fibers[179] in fruits and vegetables can be enriched in functional foods protecting specifically against intestinal cancer.

Insoluble fibers in plant cell walls are associated with phenolic compounds which are natural antioxidants.

Experiments have demonstrated that potatoes peels replacing wheat flour in oatmeal cookies reduces peroxides values because of the content of phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acids (Arora and Camire, 1994)[179].

Skins and flesh of grapes as waste of wine and grape juice are available as commercial product under the name of Vitis Fibre. Saura-Calixto 1998 compared Selenium this product with the activity of red wine skins and alpha-tocopherol. Although positive findings were reported safety of these ingredients on regard to concentration of pesticides and other environment poisons should be carefully studied.

Selenium as trace element in wheat germs, acting against free radicals can be enriched in corn flakes.

Zinc from vegetables and marine animals is an important part of our immune system. An undersupply of zinc makes susceptible to cold and cancer.

Green tea and its extracts acting against free radicals can be incorporated in energy drinks and other beverages.

An example of functional food is probiotic yoghurt with bacteria which can survive acidity of the digestive tract and settle in the small and large intestine.The special strains of these Lactobacillae help digestion or strengthen the immune system.

Microencapsulated probiotics

Microencapsulation technology is being used to protect probiotic bacteria from the acidity of the gastrointestinal tract.

There is a poor survival of probiotic bacteria in many probiotic health-based products. Some methods of micro-encapsulation of probiotic bacteria include spray drying, extrusion, emulsion and phase separation have not been successful for industrial shelf-stable products. Other methods were tried using calcium-alginate gel capsules, carrageenan, gellan gum, gelatin and starch as excipients.

The need to design and develop equipment that will generate presise and uniform micro or nano capsules in large quantities have been reported by Kallasapathy[180] Probio'Stick is based on two probiotic strains Rosell-52 and Rosell-175. It is being evaluated to relieve some of the chronic stress-related disorders, nausea and abdominal pain, and its benefits for sufferers of irritable bowel syndrome

Other studies on the benefit of micro-encapsulated probiotics on irritable bowel syndrome used the bacterium Bifidobacterium infantis 35624. The study was conducted by Clinical Trials, US National Institutes of health. [181]

Another hopeful part of functional food are the Omega-3 LCPs (Long Chain Polyunsaturated fatty acids)also called omega-3-fatty acids. These fatty acids are told to lower the level of blood cholesterol reduce incidence of peripheric heart vessel diseases, are essential for the development of the retina and brain of new born babies.

Omega-3-fatty acids are already present in omega-3 enriched eggs.Further informations under the keyword omega.

Omega-3-fatty acids are refined from marine oils produced by Roche Vitamins Europe and can be incorporated into a wide range of everyday foods, from bread,milk and margarine to mayonnaise

Special substances of plants such as phytosterols can be enriched in functional foods and reduce the risk of heart and vessels diseases. Sterols are already being enriched in some special brands of margarine. Further informations under keyword sterol.

A functional food may be "functional" for some specific groups and act as normal nutrition for the rest of the population. Specific groups which are affected may be school-age children, pregnant women, elderly, insulin-resistant people or disease-risked people.

Research on health linkages between foods and botanical ingredients find new ways to effective alternative ways to treat or to avoid diseases such as new researches on zeaxanthin and lutein to improve vision and prevent cataracts and macula degeneration. This study is being made by the US Department of Agriculture.[182]

New studies are funded by US's National Institutes of Health concerning melatonin related to weight control, aging and contraception.


Cherry juice and sports drinks [183]

Tart cherries are known to be rich in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.

Such anti-inflammatory agents may be beneficial for the management and prevention of inflammatory diseases.

Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues propose that the flavonoids and anthocyanins in the cherries exert an anti-inflammatory effect and may lessen the damage response to exercise. [184]

In another study Declan Connolly tested the efficacy of a tart cherry cherry juice blend in preventing the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. This study was published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, demonstrating that the strength loss and pain were significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo . Relaxed elbow angle and muscle tenderness were not different between trials.

Connolly came to the conclusion that cherry juice decreased some of the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. These results have important practical applications for athletes affected by strength loss and pain after damaging exercises.


Cherry juice and sports drinks [183]

Tart cherries are known to be rich in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agents.

Such anti-inflammatory agents may be beneficial for the management and prevention of inflammatory diseases.

Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues propose that the flavonoids and anthocyanins in the cherries exert an anti-inflammatory effect and may lessen the damage response to exercise. [184]

In another study Declan Connolly tested the efficacy of a tart cherry cherry juice blend in preventing the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. This study was published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, demonstrating that the strength loss and pain were significantly lower in the cherry juice trial versus placebo. Relaxed elbow angle and muscle tenderness were not different between trials.

Connolly came to the conclusion that cherry juice decreased some of the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage. These results have important practical applications for athletes affected by strength loss and pain after damaging exercises.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Strawberries in Overweight/obese Individuals: Research Project, Agricultural Research Service, USDA Gov [185]

Adipose tissue is a major source of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-', and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.

Strawberries contain high levels of antioxidants including ellagic acid, catechins, anthocyanins, and the flavanols quercetin and kaempferol, all of which have displayed anti-inflammatory abilities.

The specific hypothesis is that strawberries contain potent anti-inflammatory antioxidants that can prevent the oxidization of LDL involved in the generation of atherosclerotic plaques, reduce the production of inflammatory cytokines in obese individuals, and suppress the immune response.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Strawberries in Overweight/obese Individuals: Research Project, Agricultural Research Service, USDA Gov [185]

Adipose tissue is a major source of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor, and leptin which can contribute to chronic inflammation in obese individuals.

Strawberries contain high levels of antioxidants including ellagic acid, catechins, anthocyanins, and the flavanols quercetin and kaempferol, all of which have displayed anti-inflammatory abilities.

The specific hypothesis is that strawberries contain potent anti-inflammatory antioxidants that can prevent the oxidization of LDL involved in the generation of atherosclerotic plaques, reduce the production of inflammatory cytokines in obese individuals, and suppress the immune response.


Recent studies on ellagic acid [186]

Ellagic acid is a naturally occurring tannic acid derivative, a phenol antioxidant found in fruits and vegetables such as blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, cranberries, walnuts, pecans, pomegranates, wolfberry and other plant foods.

Ellagic acid has antiproliferative and antioxidant properties in a number of in vitro and small-animal models. The antiproliferative properties of ellagic acid are due to its ability to directly inhibit the DNA binding of certain carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Very little study of these proposed benefits on humans has been reported. Despite the very preliminary state of evidence supporting health benefits in humans FDA warns of exaggerated health claims on isolated plant compounds or plant extracts which might cure cancer or other serious ailments.

Ellagic acid from berries and fruits, such as pomegranate, reduce the risk of atherosclerosis [187]

Atherosclerosis starts with the formation of foam cells. Lipid uptake by scavenger receptors (SR) in macrophages starting chronic proinflammatory cascades which are linked to atherosclerosis. According to Park et al. 2011 ellagic acid suppresses scavenger receptors SR-B1 induction and formation of such foam cells. In their study the authors found that Ellagic acid upregulated PPARgamma and ATP binding cassette transporter-1 in lipid-laden macrophages, all responsible for cholesterol efflux. Cholesterol efflux in foam cells was increased by upregulation of PPARgamma and ATP binding cassette transporter-1. The expression and transcription of the nuclear receptor of liver X receptor-alpha were increased supporting the PPAR pathway.

Park and colleagues concluded that ellagic acid reduced macrophage lipid uptake to block foam cell formation, and cholesterol efflux in foam cells. The authors suggest that berries rich in ellagic acid may be useful in treatment of atherosclerosis.

Urolithin links ellagic acid and DBC compounds to inhibit Protein Kinase (CK2) Gozzaurcouand

Casein kinase 2 (CK2) is a pleiotropic protein kinase envolved in neoplasia and other diseases. Cozza et al.2011 report that ellagic acid and 3,8-dibromo-7-hydroxy-4-methylchromen-2-one (DBC) are strong selective CK2 inhibitors, and urolithin moiety is proposed as a possible bridging scaffold between both. Optimization of urolithin A by the authors identified 4-bromo-3,8-dihydroxy-benzo[c]chromen-6-one as a strong inhibitor of CK2 protein kinase which is active in cancer.

Ellagic acid protection of lung injury after intestinal ischemia-reperfusion [188]

Böyük et al 2011 studied the protective role of antioxidant treatment with ellagic acid (EA) on lung injury after intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. They found that serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was increased, and total oxidative status (TOS), and oxidative stress index (OSI) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were decreased in a group of rats supplemented with elladic acid and submitted to intestinal ischemia, compared with the group with intestinal ischemia without elladic acid supplementation. The authors suggest that elladic acid treatment protects lung tissue against ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Ellagic acid protects brain and nerves of diabetic rats [189]

Uzar et al. 2011 assessed the effects of ellagic acid in brain and sciatic nerve tissues of diabetic rats. They report that ellagic acid had neuroprotective effects against oxidative damage in brain and sciatic nerves of diabetic rats.

Nanocarrier for ellagic acid [190]

Kakran describe a graphene oxide as a nanocarrier for loading and delivery of a poorly water soluble antioxidant and anticancer drug, ellagic acid. Their capabilities to kill human breast carcinoma cells (MCF7) and human colon adenocarcinoma cells (HT29) were not compromised by nano encapsuling. The cytotoxicity of ellagic acid loaded onto the functionalized graphene oxide was higher than that of free dissolved ellagic acid. The authors concluded that the described nanocarriers are suitable for ellagic drug delivery.

Antioxidant and apoptotic effects of pomegranate described [191]

Pomegranate is known for its antioxidant and anticancer effects. Dikmen et al 2011 describe the antioxidant potency of a methanolic pomegranate fruit peel extract and the relation with its antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of Abstract Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Dikmen and colleagues concluded that the extract of pommegranate peel reduces cell proliferation and induces apoptosis on MCF-7 cancer cells, and is an important antioxidant.

Calculating caffeine content

Coffee content is about 80 mg caffeine/100 mL of coffee, and 26 mg per 100 mL of tea. [192]

One cup of coffee contains about 85 mg of caffeine, almost twice the caffeine content of tea (45mg) [193]

Coffee and pregnancy

The effect of consumption of caffeine in coffee and other beverages (energy drinks like Red Bull) on fertility, spontaneous abortion and premature birth, foetal malformations, foetal growth and birth weight takes Gil Esparza in Alimentaria No. 293, 109-112 to the conclusion to limit the intake of caffeine to 200-300 mg/day. Such an intake was found to have no adverse effects on the foetus during pregnancy. Avoiding black coffee may help to avoid cancer of the esophagus. Tannin, found in coffee and tea, is a suspected carcinogen. The protein in milk, though, neutralizes tannin, rendering it non-absorbable by the body.

Coffee may reduce risk of ovarian cancer

[194] Tworoger, Shelley S. and colleagues examined the associations between smoking, caffeine, and alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk. The authors found that neither current nor past smoking was associated with ovarian cancer risk overall; however, both were associated with mucinous tumors. Caffeine from three or more cups of coffee may reduce epithelial ovarian cancer risk. more pronounced in women who had never used hormones. No association between alcohol and ovarian cancer risk was found.

Caffeine and gamma rhythm [195]

Dr. Martin Vreugdenhil says that caffeine might enhance memory by blocking the calming effect of adenosine neurotransmitter. Adenosine increases during the day and rising age. It binds to the A1 receptor decreasing the activity of nerve cells. Binding to an A2a receptor it boosts activity. The authors have found that caffeine boosts the gamma rhythms, due to a selective blocking of the A1 receptor. They conclude that a few cups of coffee could increase gamma rhythm strength, contributing to the cognitive beneficial effects of caffeine warning, however, against drinking excessive amounts or very strong coffee considering the sleep problems and effects on the heart and blood system caused by caffeine They call for scientists to separate the beneficial effects from the side effects.

Volatile compounds of coffee aroma alleviate sleep deprivation stress and have antioxidant activities [196]

There are about 900 volatile compounds in the aroma of roasted coffee beans. Han-Seok Seo and colleagues found that the volatiles in coffee induce changes in the expression of messenger RNA (mRNA)and protein levels in the rat brain, resulting in antioxidant or stress relaxation activities.

mRNA are messenger molecules that indicate when a gene is being expressed. There are 11 genes which are important to brain function. When the rats were exposed to the aroma of coffee, the mRNA for nine of the genes was restored to near normal levels, and pushed to above normal levels for two: GIR which is involved in neuro-endocrine control, and NFGR, which controls oxidative stress.

The authors concluded that it is not yet known if the results may be translated to humans, however, these results may explain why coffee is preferred by humans when they need to stay awake. The volatiles of the coffee aroma may help alleviate the stress of the sleep deprivation caused by sleep deprivation changing the mRNA and protein expression levels of the rat brain, and have antioxidant activities.

Antioxidant activity of caffeine [197]

The antioxidant activity of caffeine metabolites and colonic metabolites m-coumaric acid and dihydroferulic acid in coffee was studied by José Ángel Gómez-Ruiz and colleagues. The caffeine metabolite 1-Methyluric acid was able to delay for more than 13 h human low-density lipoprotein LDL oxidation by copper and 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride.

Dr. Francesca Bravi and colleagues found, in a meta-analysis, an inverse relation between coffee drinking and liver cancer and the risk of other liver diseases, suggesting favourable effect of coffee on liver function. These findings justify moderate coffee consume [198]

Coffee and tea may reduce risk of a certain type of stroke [192]

Larsson and colleagues 2008 in a large, prospective, observational study using data from the Finnish Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study showed that smokers who consumed 8 or more cups of coffee per day, and those who drank 2 or more cups of black tea daily had reduced cerebral infarction risk.

The authors concluded that high consumption of coffee and tea may reduce the risk of cerebral infarction among men but not to other types of stroke, such as intracerebral hemorrhages, subarachnoid hemorrhages, and unspecified strokes.

The effect of adenosine A1 receptor modulation on brain rhythms and cognitive functions [199]

At the University of Birmingham further projects aime to assess mechanisms underlying the beneficial cognitive effects of caffeine and selective adenosine A1 receptor agonists in electrophysiological studies in vitro and in vivo, and in behavioural studies.

Caffeine and reduction of Alzheimer's disease [200]

Research carried out at the Faculty of Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal, and published in the European Journal of Neurology (2002, 9 (4): 377-382) found that consuming 200 mg of caffeine a day may reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. Experiments on mice had previously found caffeine to be promising as a treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Study supports caffeine protection of the blood brain barrier [201]

Chen and colleagues 2008 studied the way how chronic ingestion of caffeine protects against high cholesterol diet-induced disruptions of the blood brain barrier (BBB). High levels of serum cholesterol and disruptions of the blood brain barrier may increase risk of Alzheimer's disease.

In this study rabbits were fed with a 2% cholesterol-enriched diet and 3 mg caffeine daily for 12 weeks. Caffeine reduced the biochemical indicators of disruption of the blood brain barrier.

The authors concluded that chronic ingestion of caffeine protects against high cholesterol diet-induced disruptions of the BBB. They suggest that caffeine and drugs similar to caffeine might be useful in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. According to the authors caffeine is a safe and readily available drug which stabilises the blood brain barrier and protects against neurological disorders.

Coffee reduces risk of Parkinson's disease [202]

Payami et al 2010 report that the GRIN 2A gene controls the activity of coffee reducing the risk of Parkinson’s disease for some people. The researchers compared the amount of caffeinated coffee consumed during lifetime and the coexistence of the GRIN2A gene. Those who had high intake of coffee, and the GRIN 2A gene presented the lowest risk of Parkinson's disease. This special gene is present in about 25% of the population.

The authors explain further, that the GRIN 2A gene is associated with glutamate which kills brain affected by the Parkinson’s disease patients adenosine may be involved in this process. Coffee may interfere with this pathway.

In Parkinson's disease the immune system attacks neurons in the substantia nigra, a part of the brain that helps control movement, resulting in involuntary shaking, slow movement, stiffened muscle tone, and impaired balance. The cause is unclear, but researchers are looking for an interplay of genetics and environmental factors, such as caffeine consumption and cigarette smoking reducing the risk of the disease. These findings may help to identify patients which respond to drugs targeting the caffeine pathway. More studies are needed and at present patients should not change their caffeine consumption.

Genes associated with Parkinson's disease

The authors describe SNCA and MAPTgenes, associated with GAK and HLA region which have only a small impact on disease risk by itself, but additively, these genes can have a large impact, MAPT gene encodes a protein inside neurons and SNCA encodes alpha-synuclein which regulates signaling both within and between neurons. The HLA genes encode proteins which identify cells as "foreign".A variant of the HLA-DRA gene is the GAK gene which is strongly associated with late-onset, sporadic cases and was seen more often in men In addition to finding an association between Parkinson's disease and a variant in HLA-DRA, the study confirmed previously reported associations with SNCA, MAPT and a gene called GAK. The variant in HLA-DRA was most strongly associated with, who are affected by sporadic Parkinson's disease more often than women. [203]

Caffeine or nicotine do not reduce the risk of Parkinson's disease [204]

Trinh et al.2010 studying the effect on Parkinson's disease found that coffee and tobacco, but not caffeine or nicotine, are neuroprotective in fly Parkinson disease models. The authors stress further that these effects can also be noted with Drosophila models of Alzheimer's disease and polyglutamine disease. The authors explain that the mentioned neuroprotective effects require the activity of the transcription factor Nrf2 and Nrf2 activator in coffee, cafestol, which may be used for therapeutic intervention in Parkinson's disease or other neurodegenerative diseases.

Caffeine improving the time to exhaustion in exercise tests [205]

According to a study by Douglas G. Bell and Tom McLellan caffeine improves the time to exhaustion in exercise tests, the effects of caffeine were still apparent six hours after ingestion and heart rates were higher for the non-users throughtout the trials.

Six hours after ingestion of caffeine effects were still apparent. During trials non-users experienced higher heart rates. The authors concluded that both the duration and magnitude of the ergogenic effect that followed a 5 mg/kg dose of caffeine were greater in the no-users compared with the users.

Caffeine and diabetes mellitus 2 [206]

SoJung Lee in a study found that caffeine ingestion was associated with a significant reduction in insulin sensitivity by a similar magnitude in the lean, obese, and type 2 diabetic groups in comparison with placebo. After exercise training, caffeine ingestion was still associated with a reduction in insulin sensitivity.

The authors conclude that caffeine consumption is associated with a substantial reduction in insulin-mediated glucose uptake independent of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and chronic exercise.

Coffee and risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction and genotype F1

[207]
Caffeine is metabolised by the polymorphic cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) enzyme. Individuals who are homozygous for the CYP1A2-1A allele (genotype F1A) are rapid caffeine metabolisers, whereas carriers of the variant CYP1A2-1F (genotype F1) are slow caffeine metabolisers.

Marilyn C. and colleagues studied the activity of genotype CYP1A2 in residents of Costa Rica, in relation to the association between coffee consumption and risk of acute nonfatal myocardial infarction.

The authors concluded that intake of coffee was associated with an increased risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction only among individuals with slow caffeine metabolism (genotype F1), suggesting that caffeine plays a role in this association.

Coffee triggering myocardial infarction [208]

Dr. Anna Baylin and colleagues believe that coffee in the presence of predisposing factors can induce a cascade of events that, through sympathetic nervous activation, can induce the onset of myocardial infarction.The findings of their study indicate that coffee intake may trigger myocardial infarction. The association is particularly strong among people with light/occasional intake of coffee (one or less cup/day), with sedentary lifestyle, or with 3 or more risk factors for coronary heart disease.

Commentary on the researche of Baylin and colleagues

David S. Siscovick writes that there may be major differences between Costa Rica where the research of Baylin and colleagues were made, and other countries in other factors such as the dietary consumption of saturated fatty acids from tropical oils. He says that the effect modification could occur with differences in lifestyle, health status, or medical therapies. Siscovick concludes that the differences in these potential effect modifiers would need to be explored fully before assuming that the hazard would be similar in other settings. [209]

Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease [210]

Frank B. Hu and Walter C. Willet (2002) to reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases, suggest diets using nonhydrogenated unsaturated fats as the predominant form of dietary fat, whole grains as the main form of carbohydrates, an abundance of fruits and vegetables, and adequate omega-3 fatty acids, together with regular physical activity, avoidance of smoking, and maintenance of a healthy body weight.

Western dietary pattern in women is linked to cardiovascular, cancer and all-cause mortality [211]

Christin Heidemann and colleagues 2008 found that women who eat a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole grains, fish and poultry may reduce their risk for death from cardiovascular disease and from all causes, according to the results of a prospective study. In contrast, women who follow a traditional "Western" diet of red and processed meat, refined grains, french fries, and sweets are at a higher risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes.

Clear labelling of caffeine content in caffeinated beverages [212]

Mc Cusker, Golberg and Cone analysed caffeine content of some caffeinated beverages. Surprisingly high levels of caffeine were found in products without labelling it:

The authors say that due to health concerns arising from the consumption of caffeine it seems appropriate that warning labels should accompany all caffeinated beverages. They should display the caffeine content on their labels to prevent those at risk from consuming too much caffeine.

High caffeine intake is associated with delayed conception, spontaneous miscarriage and low birth weight, but not with birth defects. The current position (2008) of the American Dietetic Association is that pregnant women should avoid caffeine intake above 300 mg per day. In its position paper"Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome" The Association outlines references for healthy standards for the nutritionduring pregnancy.[213]

Caffeine consumption during pregnancy, advice 2008 [214]

The CARE Study Group found in a study published in 2008 that caffeine intake by pregnant women was linked to babies being born with a low birth weight, or even being miscarried. The Group recorded caffeine intake in the four weeks before and throughout pregnancy. Individual caffeine metabolism was calculated using a saliva sample test. The average caffeine intake during pregnancy was 159 mg/day. This is below of the UK government's recommended limit of 300 mg/day. Of the caffeine consumed, 62% came from tea, 14% from coffee, 12% from cola, 8% from chocolate and 2% from soft drinks.

Taking as the base pregnant women consuming less than 100 mg/day (the equivalent of one cup of coffee), the risk of having a lower birth baby increased by 20% for intakes of 100-199 mg/day, by 50% for those taking between 200-299 mg/day, and by 40% for over 300 mg/day. Women who metabolised caffeine more quickly presented a stronger link between caffeine and a reduced birth weight, compared with those of a low caffeine metabolism.

The CARE Study Group concluded that caffeine consumption during pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of foetal growth restriction and this association continued throughout pregnancy. The group calls for a reduction of caffeine intake before conception and throughout pregnancy.


Energy drinks

Health Effects of Energy Drinks on Children [215]

Seifert and colleagues 2011 report that 30% to 50% of adolescents and young adults consume energy drinks contain high and unregulated amounts of caffeine. Serious adverse effects of these drinks have been reported in association with other health risks. In 2007 there were 5448 US cases of caffeine overdoses of which 46% occurred in persons younger than 19 years. According to the authors the use of energy drinks in these young populations should be debated, as they provide no therapeutic benefit, are associated with health risks, many of their ingredients are understudied and not regulated. Seifert and colleagues argue that such drinks present no therapeutic benefit. The toxicity surveillance should be improved, sales and consumptions regulations should be established.

Bigard et al. 2010 reports that the effect of energy drinks on physical and cognitive performances remains controversial. The toxicity of ingredients or ingestion in combination with alcohol may be the cause of related serious effects. Taurine-induced toxic encephalopathy has been cited in some studies, but the taurin content of energy drinks do not pose a health risk, but the effect of more then 3 gram taurin/day of energy drinks must be studied. Bigard stresses that consumption of energy drinks may increase the risk for caffeine overdose and toxicity in children and teenagers. This group considers energy combined with alcohol a social way to meet people. Such combination was found to reduce subjective perceptions of some symptoms of alcohol intoxication. [216]

FSA new advice on caffeine consumption during pregnancy [217]

The Agency had previously recommended a maximum daily intake of 300mg. However, the new research, published by the CARE Study Group Nov. 2008, suggests a limit of 200 mg per day will help to reduce this low risk even further. The FSA says that the new advice means that there is no need to cut out caffeine completely, pregnant women should, however, be careful not to have too much and to reduce caffeine as much as possible.

The European Union on caffeinated drinks [218]

As far as caffeine is concerned, the Scientific Committee for Food, in its opinion of 21 January 1999 on caffeine and other substances used as ingredients in "energy drinks", concluded that, for adults, apart from pregnant women, the contribution of "energy drinks" to the total consumption of caffeine did not appear to be a cause for concern, assuming that "energy drinks" replace other sources of caffeine.

However, for children, an increase in the daily intake of caffeine to a certain level of consumption per day may bring about temporary changes in behaviour, such as increased excitability, irritability, nervousness or anxiety. In addition, for pregnant women, the Committee's view is that moderation of caffeine intake is advisable.

These findings make it necessary to provide labelling which gives the consumer clear information on the presence or otherwise of quinine or caffeine in a foodstuff and, in the case of caffeine, to provide a warning message and an indication of the amount of caffeine, where this is in excess of a specific level, in beverages which do not naturally contain caffeine.

Where a beverage which is intended for consumption without modification, or after reconstitution of the concentrated or dried product, contains caffeine, from whatever source, in a proportion in excess of 150 mg/l, the following message must appear on the label in the same field of vision as the name under which the product is sold: High caffeine content.

Excluded from this regulation are beverages based on coffee, tea or coffee or tea extract where the name under which the product is sold includes the term "coffee" or "tea".

The EU Scientific Committee on Food and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [219]

Germany, Australia, and New Zealand have reported adverse effects of energy drinks associated with liver damage, kidney failure, respiratory disorders, agitation, heart disfunctions and deaths. These incidents usually involved improper intake of energy drinks, such as drinking them with alcohol or in greater quantities than recommended.

EU Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) has issued a statement on the safety of energy drinks and their stimulant ingredients in 1999, and supplemented this statement in 2003. This opinion says that the caffeine content of energy drinks is not so high that intake of caffeine as a result of moderate consumption of energy drinks would be detrimental to a healthy adult. However, energy drinks are not recommended to children and pregnant women. A daily intake of 300 mg is safe for pregnant women. Because of most recent research results, setting the safe limit at 200 mg has been considered.

European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) gave in 2009 an opinion on taurine and glucuronolactone, stating that frequent intake of energy drinks is not a matter of safety concern. However, the EFSA's committee stressed the acute health concerns including accidents causing death that have been reported for young people that consume excessive amounts of energy drinks combined either with physical stress or as in most cases the use of alcohol.

The committee considers it not probable that taurine and caffeine carry a combined impact on the fluid and sodium losses of the body. Glucuronolactone probably has no combined impact with the effects of caffeine, taurine, alcohol or physical stress. Recommended though is that energy drinks not be used in combination with excessive use of alcohol or as drinks to quench thirst. [220]
Drug interactions and dose-dependent effects remain largely unknown, although the current study reports that the ingredients 5-hydroxy tryptophan, vinpocetine, yohimbine, and ginseng have the potential for drug interactions that could result in adverse effects. Such combination is found in JetFuel. [221]

Energy drinks labelled as nutritional supplements in USA [222]

Energy drinks are categorized as nutritional supplements in order to avoid the limit of 71 mg caffeine per 12 fluid ounces set by the FDA for soda, but also evade pharmaceutical safety testing and labelling in USA. Actually these drinks contain 75 to 400 mg caffeine per container, and guarana, kola nut, yerba mate, and cocoa adds a lot more not yet included in the .declaration of the label.

USA has the the most lax regulatory requirements on energy drinks compared with any other country. These drinks vary from 50 mg to 505 mg per unit. Reissig et al. 2009 state that the absence of regulatory opened to doors to aggressive marketing of energy drinks targeted toward young males, for psychoactive, performance-enhancing and stimulant drug effects, resulting in increasing cases of caffeine intoxication and caffeine dependence and withdrawal in children and adolescents. According to the authors, there are signs that combined use of caffeine and alcohol may increase the rate of alcohol-related injury and provide a gateway to other forms of drug dependence. [223]

Aggressive marketing of energy drinks [224]

Howland et al. 20011 report that marketing promotes mixing caffeinated "energy" drinks with alcoholic beverages, such as Red Bull with vodka. Young drinkers are brought to expect that these drinks might reduce the effects of alcohol and enhance alertness, leading to increased risk in traffic. Tests performed by the authors performed demonstrate that alcohol significantly impaired driving and sustained attention/reaction time. No improvement of driving performance was obtained with the addition of caffeine. The authors concluded that energy drinks or caffeine alone does not influence the effects of alcohol related to driving.

Health Canada's New Recommendations [225]

For children age 12 and under, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. Based on average body weights of children, this means a daily caffeine intake of no more than: For women of childbearing age, the recommendation is a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 300 mg, or a little over two 8-oz (237 ml) cups of coffee (Nawrot et al. 2003) [226]. For the rest of the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg. The organisation provides a list of foods and caffeine contents. [227]

Health risks of energy drinks and energy shots [228]

Hebert, Stanbrook and MacDonald 2010 point to the health risk of energy drinks due to inadequate labelling requirements, a lack of awareness of caffeine's harmful effects and clever marketing aimed at children. Energy drinks contain 80 to 140 mg of caffeine per 250 mL, the equivalent caffeine in one cup of coffee. New formulations with caffeine concentrations as high as 500 mg per can are now being marketed.

The authors stress that many countries are working on strict regulations. Red Bull is being sold only in pharmacies in Norway. It is prohibited in Denmark. Herbert and colleagues recommend all products with caffeine levels exceeding 100 mg to have label and advertising with warnings comparable to those required for caffeine tablets. There should be no advertising targeting children, and public education should focus on the health consequences of caffeine in children.

Energy shots

Similar to energy drinks, energy shots contain caffeine, vitamins, and herbs such as guarana, ginseng or ginkgo biloba, taurine, maltodextrin, inositol, carnitine, creatine or glucuronolactone. The central ingredient in most energy shots is caffeine, the same stimulant found in coffee or tea. The average 50 ml energy shot has about 80 mg of caffeine ranging up to 200 mg per shot, and 200-1000 mg Taurin. This is approximately equivalent to a cup of coffee.

Micro shots

These are shots with 1-5 teaspoons of liquid, such as Dynapep and FIXX Extreme with 400 mg caffeine. [229]

Excessive energy shot intake [230]

According to the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) energy shots are a new kind of energy drinks that contain caffeine and taurine. In advertisements, these are claimed to increase concentration and capacity or physical performance. They are marketed in smaller portions (25-75 ml) than the more common energy drinks yet contain a higher concentration of caffeine and in some cases taurine per litre than energy drinks. The compositions of energy shots known to BfR vary significantly and contain between 50-200 mg caffeine and 200-1000 mg taurine per portion. In contrast to energy drinks, these energy shots are labelled with the manufacturer's suggested intake levels recommending one portion per day.

Health risks

BfR writes that health risks can result if the suggested intake level is exceeded considerably. The extent of potential health risks depends on the intake amounts (caffeine and taurine) and the manner of intake (e.g. once, rapid intake over a short period of time, high amounts distributed over several single doses), on individual consumer sensitivity to the effects of caffeine, the usual amount of caffeine consumed daily, the amount of caffeine consumed through other sources of caffeine as well as potential parallel factors such as alcohol intake or strenuous physical/sports activity.

According to BfR, there is a risk that energy shots are not used in accordance with the manufacturer's advice for intended use. The Institute assumes that energy shots are sometimes consumed in place of energy drinks without quantitative limit. It should also be noted that consumers in night clubs may choose to increase their energy shot intake in an attempt to counteract fatigue or to reach a state of arousal.

According to BfR, the desire to improve performance produces a risk of excessive energy shot intake. As consumers can be expected to disregard the advice for intended use, thus taking in high doses of caffeine which could result in adverse effects, the Institute deems energy shots unsafe.

The compositions of energy shots assessed here vary significantly (caffeine concentrations 1.3-6 g/L, taurine concentrations 4-20 g/L). With respect to the manufacturer's advice for intended use (1 portion/day), caffeine intake ranges from 50-200 mg and taurine intake ranges from 200-1000 mg/day. The interaction of caffeine with other constituents in energy drinks (e.g. taurine) or with ethanol in the alcoholic beverages consumed together with energy shots or with physical exertion (e.g. extended, physically strenuous dancing) or sports activities could amplify the adverse effects of caffeine.

The use of caffeine as pharmaceutical product [230]

- For the indication "to temporarily counteract symptoms of fatigue", single doses of 100 to 200 mg caffeine are used, which can be repeated if necessary, but not more than twice within 24 hours (BGA, 1988; pharmaceutical product information of a caffeine monopreparation, 2008).

- With regard to "side effects", the information states that the appearance of side effects depends on the above named factors and that even low doses (this probably refers to 100 mg) can cause tachycardia, insomnia, apprehension and gastrointestinal disturbances, while doses over 200 mg can cause irritability, headaches and intensified physiological muscle tremors even in individuals with low sensitiv-ity (pharmaceutical product information of a caffeine monopreparation, 2008).

- In section "special warnings and special precautions for use" patients with hyperthyroidism (may increase) and patients with cirrhosis of the liver (caffeine may accumulate) are advised to take caffeine at a low dosage (about 100 mg) and only under medical supervision (pharmaceutical product information of a caffeine monopreparation, 2008).

- "Overdosing" contains the information that symptoms of poisoning can occur at 1g caffeine and more if the amount is taken in a short time span. It also states that fa-tal doses of caffeine range from 3 g and 10 g (pharmaceutical product information of a caffeine monopreparation, 2008).

Warning labels about excessive consumption of caffeine and taurine rejected by the EU Commission [231]

In July 2010 the European Commission rejected the German motion to require energy drinks to carry warning labels because of concerns about excessive consumption of caffeine and taurine. The Commission found no evidence of a specific risk associated with these substances that would require additional labelling. This disregards several international warnings.

Energy drink consumption and alcohol intoxication [232]

Thombs and colleagues 2010 assessed the consumption of energy drink, alcohol intoxication and intention to drive a motor vehicle. The authors found that consuming alcohol mixed with energy drinks increased the risk 3-fold of leaving a bar highly intoxicated, as well as a 4-fold increased risk of intending to drive, compared to other drinkers who did not consume alcoholic beverages mixed with energy drinks. The authors concluded that energy drink consumption by young adults at bars is a marker for elevated involvement in nighttime risk-taking behaviour. The authors call for further research to develop sound regulatory policy on alcohol/energy drink sales practices of on-premise establishments.

Combination of alcohol and energy drinks like Red Bull [233]

Young adults increasingly use energy drinks in the hope to reduce the intensity of the depressant effects of alcohol. Objective motor coordination and visual reaction time is, however, not improved traffic safety is thus endangered when alcohol is consumed together with energy drinks like Red Bull and GSK Lucozade Energy.

A Brazilian study leaded by Sionaldo Eduardo Ferreira studied the effect of energy drinks on symptoms of alcohol intoxication. The study concludes that the ingestion of alcohol plus energy drink significantly reduced subjects' perception of headache, weakness, dry mouth, and impairment of motor coordination.

However, the ingestion of the energy drink did not significantly reduce the deficits caused by alcohol on objective motor coordination and visual reaction time. The ingestion of the energy drink did not alter the breath alcohol concentration in either group.

Energy drinkscannot reduce the harmful effects of alcohol on motor coordination, the person is drunk but does not feel as drunk as he really is. Energy drinks also dangerously increase the amount and the speed of ingestion -of alcoholic beverages.

Earlier findings demonstrate that even a small volume (250ml) of a specially formulated energy drink (Solstis, GlaxoSmithKline, Brentford UK, providing 75 mg caffeine and 37.5 g glucose) can have a consistent effect on sleepiness, lane keeping and speed choice in traffic.

These findings are important, and if supported by further research could have implications for future highway safety. This study, however, gives no information about a simultaneous consumption of energy drinks and alcohol intoxication as it highlights the effect on sleepiness in absence of alcohol.[234]

Energy drinks as nutritional healthcare product [235]

The GSK company promotes its Lucozade glucose energy and sports drinks under the category of nutritional healthcare product giving them a touch of health and fittness.

New data suggest that energy drinks increase health risks [236]

Energy drinks contain caffeine, taurine, inosite and glucuronolactone. Energy drinks with high popularity are Red Bull, Full Throttle, Amp and Rush.

According to the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) provides information on more recent human data on the possible health risks posed by the consumption of energy drinks. It draws attention to reports that cardiac dysrhythmia, seizures, kidney failure and fatalities occurred after consuming energy drinks. The question about the causal relationship is still open.

The BfR calls attention to findings which indicate that test persons no longer realistically assess their dwindling responsiveness caused by alcohol consumption under the influence of energy drinks. The parallel consumption of alcohol and energy drinks can, therefore, lead to an individual misjudging his ability to perform.

Caffeine-containing lemonades which taurine, inosite and glucuronolactone have been added (energy drinks), are approved in Germany as follows:
- caffeine up to max. 320 mg/l,
- taurine up to max. 4000 mg/l,
- inosite up to max. 200 mg/l and
- glucuronolactone up to max. 2400 mg/l

The BfR recommends comprehensive information on product labels in addition to the currently prescribed labelling on a high caffeine content:
- adverse effects cannot be ruled out when larger amounts of these beverages are consumed in conjunction with intensive physical activity or with intake of alcoholic beverages;
- beverages of this kind, particularly when consumed in larger amounts, are not recommended for children, pregnant women, lactating women or individuals who are sensitive to caffeine.

Study says energy drinks may be harmful to people with hypertension, heart disease [237]

The study, leaded by James Kalus, Pharm.D. says that participants consuming two cans of energy drinks per day had their heart rate increased 7.8 percent the first day and 11 percent the seventh day. Blood pressure increased at least 7 percent the first and seventh days.

The authors recommend that people who have hypertension or heart disease and are taking medication for them to avoid consuming energy drinks because of a potential risk to their health. Kalus stressed further that energy drinks should not be confused with sports drinks, which aim to replenish the carbohydrates and electrolytes that a body needs, and that both caffeine and taurine from energy drinks have a direct impact on cardiac function.

Australia study says one can of energy drink can increase the risk of heart attack or stroke [238]

Scott Willoughby and colleagues 2008 say that one 250 ml can of the energy drink Red Bull is sufficient to increase the risk of heart attack or stroke, even in young people. The study found that the drink caused the blood to become sticky, a precursor to cardiovascular problems such as stroke. After one hour after Red Bull ingestion, the blood systems were similar to patients with cardiovascular disease. It altered platelet aggregation and endothelial function in young healthy adults. One can contains 80 mg of caffeine and 1000mg of taurine.

Results showed that mean arterial pressure increased significantly after one can of Red Bull but heart rate was unaffected. Platelet reactivity was acutely increased by Red Bull while endothelial function deteriorated.

Willoughby and colleagues stressed that although the incidence of sudden cardiac death is low, the drink could be dangerous for people with any sort of cardiovascular abnormality. They also said that the sugar-free version of Red Bull could increase the danger of blood clots and raise the risk of heart attack or stroke. Energy drinks with caffeine and taurine are banned in Norway, Uruguay and Denmark because of health risks.

Nutritional information on the most popular drinks [239]

Kotke and Gehrke 2008 provided a table with nutritional information on the most popular drinks. The table was compiled to help renal dietitians to stay informed of the abundance of products and to guide chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients appropriately.

The authors stress that a sports drink is a beverage designed to help athletes rehydrate and replenish sugar and other nutrients that can be depleted after strenuous training or competition. An energy drink is a beverage designed to give the consumer a burst of energy through a combination of ingredients including caffeine, vitamins, minerals, and exotic herbal ingredients. Some CKD patients may need a sports drink if they are training for or performing in a strenuous sports-related event that depletes their electrolytes and sugar. Energy drinks, if approved by the renal dietitian, may be appropriate for patients who can tolerate them.

Kotke and Gehrke say that most energy drinks contain herbal supplements such as guarana, yerba mate leaves, Pannax ginseng, gingko biloba, and milk thistle, which may interact with prescription medications and alter their effectiveness or interact in a harmful way.

Important coffe groups [240]

There are four important coffee groups: Robusta, Columbian Milds, Other Milds and Brazilian Naturals.

Coffee from the species Coffea arabica are richer in flavor than their Coffea robusta conterparts. C. arabica has many different varietals, each with unique characteristics. Some well-known arabica coffees include: Robusta grows at altitudes usually up to 800 meters in Indonesia, West Africa, Brazil and Vietnam representing around 30% of world production.

Arabica grows at altitudes between 600 and 2000 meters in Latin America and East Africa representing 70% of world production.

Diterpenes, bad components of coffee [241]

Urgert and colleagues analysed the coffee diterpenes and their effects on the human serum.

Cafestol and the related compound kahweol was present in unfiltered coffee brews and raises serum concentrations of cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and alanine aminotransferase in humans and and affect liver function.

Filtered coffee is free of diterpenes. They are removed by the paper of the filter. Other materials used as filter should be tested on their ability to retain the diterpenes.

Caffeine [242]

Caffeine, depending upon the quantity consumed: increased alertness, anxiety, irritability, interference with sleep, and jitteriness and is a mild diuretic. The most notable behavioural effects of caffeine occur after consumption of low to moderate doses (50-300 mg) and include increased alertness, energy, and ability to concentrate.

Moderate caffeine consumption rarely leads to health risks. Caffeine was considered in one study as a potential drug of abuse and more recently was described as a model drug of abuse. Coffee can be said to be habit-forming.

Moderate consumption of coffee reduces risk of Parkinson disease [243]

The association of caffeine, particularly coffee intake and Parkinson disease was evaluated in the Honolulu Heart Program between 1965 and 1968 concluding that those who consumed caffeine had a significantly lower incidence of PD than those who did not.

For example, the adjusted incidence of PD decreased from 10.4:10,000 person-years in those who did not consume coffee to 1.9:10,000 person years for those who consumed at least 28 ounces/day. This effect was dose-related with increased caffeine consumption inversely correlated with the risk of developing PD. The data suggest that the mechanism is related to caffeine intake and not to other nutrients contained in coffee.

The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke found that available studies evaluating caffeine and PD prevention are overall positive, however they are limited, in that they are primarily retrospection/case-control in nature, or they do not assess caffeine intake in a well controlled manner.

Typically, caffeine or coffee intake is assessed as a categorical variable (1-2 cups/day of coffee), hence there is also no definite dose or dose-range that has been evaluated. [244]

Coffee and reduction of risk for type 2 diabetes [245]

Long-term coffee consumption (7 or more cups of coffee a day) were found by Salazar-Martinez and colleagues to be associated with a statistically significantly lower risk for type 2 diabetes. Total caffeine intake from coffee and other sources was associated with a statistically significantly lower risk for diabetes in both men and women.

Battram and colleagues found that acute alkaloid caffeine (CAF) ingestion results in an impaired glucose tolerance, chronic coffee (RCOF) ingestion decreases the risk of developing type 2 diabetes. The effect of RCOF compared with decaffeinated coffee DECAF was less pronounced.[246]

Coffee, caffeine and diabetes 2 risk [247]

Dam and Hu in 2005 found that higher coffee consumption was consistently associated with a lower prevalence of postprandial hyperglycemia. They concluded that habitual coffee consumption is associated with a substantially lower risk of type 2 diabetes.

Legrand and Scheen in 2007 reviewed studies on the relationship between type 2 diabetes and coffee drinking, the most of them confirmed a protective effect against the disorder. Decaffeinated coffee had a stronger protective effect as compared to regular coffee. The authors stress that the blood glucose reduction could not be attributed exclusively to caffeine and other components, such as chlorogenic acid and/or various anti-oxidants may add to the effect. [248]

Caffeine found to increase diabetes risk [249]

Dr James Lane and his colleagues in 2008 found that too much caffeine can raise blood glucose levels and impede the transport of glucose from the blood into muscle and other cells.

A moderate dose of 500 mg/day caffeine their average daily blood glucose levels rose by 8% and at peaks up to 26%.

The authors are uncertain about the mechanism of action of caffeine but suggest that it might inhibit inhibit glucose uptake in adipocytes and skeletal muscle cells by antagonising adenosine receptors. Another way of action could be that caffeine might act indirectly by pushing up levels of adrenalin. The authors suggest to quit drinking coffee, or any other caffeinated beverages to reduce blood glucose.

Coffee and rectal cancer [250]

Consumption of caffeinated coffee, tea with caffeine, or caffeine was not associated with incidence of colon or rectal cancer, whereas regular consumption of decaffeinated coffee was associated with a reduced incidence of rectal cancer.

Coffee and liver cancer [251]

Manami Inoue and colleagues found that drinking coffee on a daily or almost daily basis resulted in a lower hepatocellular carcinoma HCC risk than those who almost never drank coffee; risk decreased with the amount of coffee consumed.

The risk of liver cancer in almost never drinkers in this population was 547.2 cases per 100 000 people over 10 years, but it was 214.6 cases per 100 000 people with drinking coffee on a daily basis. In the Japanese population, habitual coffee drinking may be associated with reduced risk of HCC.

The FINE Study

[252] The FINE Study, a prospective European cohort study, investigated whether coffee consumption is associated with 10-year cognitive decline in elderly men in the Finland, Italy and The Netherlands.

The study found that caffeine use or coffee consumption is associated with better cognitive functioning. [253] [254] However, Johnson 2002 found cognitive performance induced by coffee elderly women but not in elderly men. [255]

The Study pointed out that Fredholm and colleagues (1999) suggest that caffeine acts as an antagonist on the A2a adenosine receptors in the brain, which consequently stimulates cholinergic neurons. According to the researchers, its weak reinforcing properties are due to a unique and atypical mechanism of action caffeine is a self-limiting drug and subjects do not gradually increase the dose, because tolerance development to both the reinforcing and aversive effects is limited. [193]. According to Dall'Igna and colleagues (2002) these neurons protect against beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity, a precursor of cognitive decline. [256]

Coffee is a major source of caffeine and one cup of coffee contains about 85 mg of caffeine, almost twice the caffeine content of tea (45mg) .

Research of Freedholm and colleagues with mice showed caffeine from coffee acts as an antagonist on the A2a adenosine receptors in the brain. [193] Dall'Igna and colleagues found that this stimulates the secretion of cholinergic neurotransmitters, preventing beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in cerebellar neurons. [256]

Kopf and colleagues 1999 suggest that the A2a adenosine receptor has an effect on the memory part of the brain, the hippocampus. [257]

Other important substances of coffee, like magnesium and many phenolic acids, such as chlorogenic acid increase the antioxidant capacity in plasma, protecting neurons from oxidative damage are highlighted by Nardini and Christensen. [258] [259]

Conclusions of the FINE Study

Coffee reduces cognitive decline in elderly men, with the least cognitive decline for men consuming three cups of coffee per day.


Caffeine and newborn infants

There is no blood-brain barrier to caffeine in the adult or the fetal animal [260]. There is no placental barrier to caffeine [261] [262] and unusually high levels of caffeine have been reported in premature infants born to women who are heavy caffeine consumers. [263]

Caffeine equivalents [240]

In general, each of the following contains approximately 200 mg of caffeine:
1 fluid ounce (US and CA) = 29,56 ml
1 fluid ounce (GB) = 28,41 ml

Caffeinated carbonated beverages contain from 20-70 mg of caffeine. A cup of coffee contains between 65 and 175 mg. A cup or glass of tea typically contains 40-70 mg. A chocolate bar contains about 30 mg.

Gunpowder tea

Gunpowder tea [264] is made up of leaves hand-rolled into tiny pellets resembling gunpowder. Rolling tea leaves into gunpowder tea renders the leaves less susceptible to physical damage and allows them to retain more of their flavor and aroma.

Claims for functional foods

Claims for functional foods There are two main types of claims for functional foods. [178]:
  1. Enhanced function claims: There are given interactions of a food component and specific functions in the body.There are no direct references to diseases given.
    Some examples of enhanced function claims are:
    Strengthening the immune functions
    Antioxidants, acting against oxidative stress
    Restore or stabilize bacterial intestinal colonies such as the stimulation of Bifidus bacteria (Bifidobacterium longum
    Bioavailability of minerals by milk oligopeptides or inulin.
  2. Diseases risk reduction claim: Not allowed by German Food Regulation.New regulations on European level are therefore needed to make these claims European wide accepted.Some examples of disease risk reduction claims are:
    Cardiovascular diseases
    Intestinal infections
    Diarrhoea,constipation
    Osteoporosis
    Non-insulin dependent diabetes or obesity


Definition of Probiotics

Since 1960 bacteria used in the therapy of people with pathological modified intestinal flora and prophylactic purpose were called probiotics. Probiotics are especially selected microorganisms showing a health-promoting effect on the host organism if consumed in a certain cell count, influencing the microbiological composition of the gastro-intestinal tract. The specific activity must surpass the activity of usual food.

Probiotics found to be protective against cold and influenza [265]

Probiotic bacteria strains were tested by Leyer from Danisco and colleagues 2009 for prophylaxis against cold and influenza-like symptoms in healthy children aged 3 to 5 years. In this study randomly assigned groups received twice daily placebo, Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM, and L acidophilus NCFM in combination with Bifidobacterium animalis subsp lactis Bi-07. The authors found that compared with the placebo group, the groups receiving single and combination probiotics had healthier outcomes.

The authors concluded that L acidophilus NCFM alone was effective. There was, however, a trend for a broader protective effect with the combination of L acidophilus NCFM and B lactis Bi-07. Daily dietary supplementation reduced fever, rhinorrhea and cough incidence, antibiotic prescription and number of missed school days.


Probiotic bacteria and irritable bowel syndrome(IBS)

The concept of small bowel bacterial overgrowth (SBBO) as an explanation for IBS symptoms and the use of a probiotic to help promote normal digestive function has been proposed.

Certain strain of bacteria like Rosell-52 and Rosell-175 are available as a micro-encapsulated Probio'Stick in thin tubes to be protected against the acidity of the stomach. They are being surveyed concerning the reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms, nausea and abdominal pain, related to stress disorders. Improvements of sufferers of irritable bowel syndrome were reported by Dr. Laurent Diop
There is a poor survival of probiotic bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract. Several methods of micro-encapsulation of probiotic bacteria included spray drying, extrusion, emulsion and phase separation had not achieved satisfactory results. The most common reported method is the calcium-alginate gel capsule formation. Other excipients are kappa-carrageenan, gellan gum, gelatin and starch. The available equipment for micro-encapsulation must undergo further development in order to generate precise and uniform micro or nano capsules in large quantities for industrial application. [180]

For micro-encapsulation to be applicable in probiotic yoghurt, the beads should not be sensed by the consumer. Small and uniform beads may allow the retention of a desirable mouth feeling as well as minimise cell death due to oxygen toxicity.[266]

Other studies of the efficacy of encapsulated probiotic bacteria in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)were performed by ClinicalTrials.gov, U.S. National Institutes of Health, using Bifidobacterium Infantis 35624 under the ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00135031. [181]


Probiotics and prevention of diarrhoea [267]

A meta-analysis evaluated the evidence for the use of probiotics in the prevention of acute diarrhoea.

Results suggest that probiotics significantly reduced antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, reduced the risk of travellers' diarrhoea, and that of acute diarrhoea of diverse causes, and reduces the associated risk of acute diarrhoea among children and adults.

The protective effect did not vary significantly among the probiotic strains Saccharomyces boulardii, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, and other strains used alone or in combinations of two or more strains.

Probiotic bacteria can ameliorate stress induced gastrointestinal disorders [268]

According to Laurent Diop and colleagues, the stress induces various disorders with gastrointestinal, physical, and psychological symptoms, in this case probiotics can help regulate or modulate gastrointestinal functions.

The authors found that the consumption of probiotics significantly reduced stress-induced gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain and nausea/vomiting.

For this study a proprietary blend of Lactobacillus acidophilus Rosell-52 and Bifidobacterium longum Rosell-175 was used.

The researchers concluded that this blend of probiotic strains can provide a beneficial effect on the gastrointestinalsymptoms experienced by individuals affected by chronic stress.

Negative outcome probiotics in acute pancreatitis [269]

According to a press release of Gut Flora from 23.01.2007 in a study concerning the effects of probiotics in patien was given probiotics than in the group that was not. Earlier studies had shown that that the treatment reduce the rate of pancreas infection.

In this study twenty-four died in the study group and nine died in the control group. It is not know what has caused the higher death rate, but the investigators advise colleagues not to use probiotic bacteria in the acute phase of this serious disease, at intensive-care patients,or the administration of probiotics through a feeding tube (directly into the intestine).

The bacteria involved in the research were varieties of Lactobacillus, Enterococcus, or Bifidobacterium, from the DutchWinclove Bio Industries


Definition of prebiotics

Prebiotics are ingredients which help the intestinal flora to develop. Inulin is an example of a prebiotic ingredient which helps Bifidus to develop.

The effective daily dosage of prebiotics like fructooligosaccharides (FOS) for humans is 3.0 g and and 0.7 g for xylooligosaccharides (XOSs). [270]


Definition of symbiotic

Symbiotic is the combination of probiotic ( the positive acting intestinal flora) and prebiotics (the ingredients which help intestinal flora).


Cholesterol-reducing claim

The USA Food and Drug administration has approved at 8.07.99 the claim that a a nutrition rich on fibres and low fat reduces the risk of cardiac infarct.

Targets for functional foods according Roberfroid

Targets for functional food are[178]: In functional food there should be included also Mood Food. Depressions and changes of mood can be influenced by neurotransmitter enriched food.

Unfortunately European Functional Foods market is dominated by digestive products. US market addresses a wide range of health conditions such as arthritis, cholesterol, blood pressure lowering,insomnia, immune booster and vision enhancer. They are called "Health Food"[182].

German regulations forbid to point out prophylactic,relieve or healing activities of food.

Mood Food

Giesela Krahl in her book "Mood Food"[271] explains the relationship between food and mood. Mood food utilizes the knowledge of physiology and pharmacology to create good mood.

Changes of mood and sudden bad feeling are not always a disease of body or soul and food is not medicine, but according to Krahl there is a relation between them.

A deep depression will not be solved by a meal of bananas, however bananas are a good choice because they interfere in the physiology of serotonin and help to lower the grip of depression.

After explaining the fundamentals of this relationship in her book Krahl gives excellent formulas and suggestions of fine food to trigger high feeling.
Color, taste, smell and composition of meals can act positively on our feeling.
Some substances which interfere with the mood[271]:

Serotonin

Serotoninis a neurotransmitter which regulates our feeling and our mood.
High serotonin levels are responsible for a balanced feeling and contentment.

Low levels of serotonin may produce fear, anxiety, and depression.
Serotonin is made by our body using tryptophan.
Sugar and carbohydrates trigger the production of insulin which helps tryptophane to get to the brain where serotonin can be built out of this raw material. Sugar acts more quickly on the mood as carbohydrate rich food such as pasta and rice do. The good mood of candies last however less time as carbohydrate rich food do.

Image Saccharose

Tryptophan is an essential amino acid which cannot be prepared by the body itself. It must assimilated with food.
The synthesis of serotonin needs tryptophan and carbohydrates in higher concentration as fat and proteins.

Dr. Astrid Lindhorst is studying neurotransmitters of the Hypothalamus, a part of the limbic system.[272] The limbic system makes the connection between consciousness, emotions and motivations at one side and the activity of the internal organs on the other side.

Dr. Lindhorst studies the production of neurotransmitters under stress situations.
The neurotransmitter of importance on this study are serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamin also called 5-HT) and 5 hydroxyindolacetic acid(5HIAA)

Serotonin is used in pharmacy in antidepressants. Foods rich in carbohydrates such as pastas and rice as well as sugar rises the blood level of serotonin acting as happy food. The neurotransmitter are extracted with microdialysis and measured with HPLC.
Catecholamineare responsible for vigilance, attention, activity.
The group of catecholamines also embraces the neurotransmitter adrenalin ,noradrenalin and dopamine. These substances carry messages keeping ones awake and active. They affect attention, sexual activity, aggressiveness and regulate the appetite.

Formation of catecholamine

Tyrosine can be made by the body.
Phenylalanine must be obtained from food, it is an essential aminoacid.
Phenylalanine triggers the motivation, the memory and learning.
Phenylalanine produces in the brain a neuroregulator which is very near in its structure to the doping drugs amphetamines which peps up.
To form catecholamine the body needs tyrosine, phenylalanine different minerals and vitamins.
Tyrosine is an aminoacid which the body can buildup by himself.Phenylalanine however must be present in food.

Phenylalanine

Is psychoactive substance which boosts the motivation, makes thinking active and makes learning better. In brain phenylalanine produces a neuroregulator which is very near to amphetamines used by drug addicts and acts antidepressive.

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is a messenger substance which is found in the brain an in the neurovegetative system and changes informations between nerve cells and muscle cells.It also has a function on thinking, learning.
It is being formed starting from choline.

Endorphine, enkephalin, neuropeptides and similar substances

Endorphin,enkephalin and neuropeptides are messenger substances of the brain which are similar to opiates regulating fear, rage, euphoria, sexual drive, and the perception of pain. These substances are made by the body himself starting from serotonin and acetylcholine during long physical activities such as marathon, music playing and daydreams.

Sources of neurotransmitters

Our body is not capable to produce by himself the whole amount of hormones and neurotransmitters which are needed. Our brain must be continuously fed with special substances which are present in food. These compounds are responsible for good function of the brain.
Our food bears a never ending number of compounds which are necessary to the function of life.This however does not mean that bananas , soy bean, vegetables or yoghurt should be sold in health stores and pharmacies as powerful medicine.
We cannot live without food. Industry however should not advertise food as concentrated drugs which can perform miracles in short time. Food act on long time basis. Food should be varied to cover all our needs.Eating continuously one brand of yoghurt will not cover all aspects of our life.
Some foods together with some functions are listed below. This shows that a variety of ingredients are needed of our meal are necessary to cover all our needs.


Neurotransmitter Source
Serotonin Pasta, rice, potatoes, cereals (wholemeal), bread, nuts,
  almonds, dates, figs, bananas, pineapple and chestnuts.
Tyrosine and Phenylalanine milk and milk products, Eggs, potatoes, rice,
  soy, noodle, poultry, meat and fish,
  in aspartame and chocolate.
Choline and acetylcholine lecithin from soy,beer yeasts, soy, seeds,
  nuts,wheat germs, vegetables, cereals (wholemeal),
  liver, eggs and cheese.
Endorphin, enkephalin,  
neuropeptides everything rich in carbohydrates like cereals, pasta,
  honey,bananas, dried fruits, food rich in fat like
  nuts, cream, butter, cocoa and cheese.Chocolate and
  gum bears are therefore eaten during depressions.


Active compound Source activity
Lecithin Soy beans, egg yolk, liver, milk Concentration
Omega-3-fatty acid Mackerel, herring, tuna, margarine Concentration
Iron Meat, eggs, crustaceans, cereals, carrots Learning
Phenylalanin Milk, eggs, potatoes, rice, soy beans, noodles Learning
Zink Cereals, almonds, oysters, carrots,oranges Memory
Acetycholine Egg yolk, liver, cereals, vegetables Memory
Vitamin B1 Avocados, bananas, nuts Memory
Sulfides Garlic, onions Creativity
Nucleic acids Germinating cereals, vegetables Creativity
folic acid Green leaf vegetables, cheese, meat Creativity
Magnesium Dried fruits, dates, wheat germs Anti-stress
Pectin Apples, quinces Anti-stress
Vitamin B Milk, egg yolk, mushroom, poultry Anti-stress


Taurine

Taurine is present in mussel, crustaceae such as shrimps and oysters and is produced in the liver. It stimulate the production of fat-killing hormones. Oestrogen (female hormone) can inhibit the production of taurine. This is why women easily built a depot of fat as male.
Taurine participates also in the production of bile acids.


Methionine

Methionine is an essential amino acid and is part of adrenalin which is responsible of the release of great amounts of energy.
Methionine is present in fish, egg yolk, meat, poultry, liver, soy beans, cheese and lentils.


Choline

Choline is part of external layers of nerve cells and brain cells. Choline controls the exchange of molecules through the membrane of the cells and helps to burn fat. Low levels of choline result in fat deposit in liver.


Magnesium

It is present in green salad, seeds, nuts, vegetables, cereals, and banana.
Magnesium acts on the fat burning system. Many over weight people have an undersupply of magnesium.
These compounds act all together. In order to have them all at once a well-balanced nutrition of natural origin are necessary together with sufficient physical activity.

Spices which may act on mood

Spices which may act on mood[271]:
Spices Activity Nomenclature
Anise calming, relaxing Pimpinella anisum
Basil reduces fear , nervous sleepless Ocimum basilicum
Savory acts on the intellect and sexual feeling Satureja hortensis
Curry can change mood Several spices
Dill acts calming and relaxing Anethum graveolens
Ginger is a stimulating tonic spice Zingiber officinale
Fennel seed acts calming for the stomach of babies as well Foeniculum vulgare
  for the mood of adults  
Garlic acts stimulating,lowers blood pressure Allium sativum
Caraway acts stimulating Carum carvi
Majoram wars up body and soul and is known Origanum majorana
  as antiaphrodisiac,reducing sexual desire,  
  therefore good for nuns and monks  
Melissa acts calming and relaxing Melissa officinalis
Nutmeg acts stimulating, known as aphrodisiac. Myristica fragans
Clove acts seducing because of its strong Jambosa caryophyllus
  and exotic smell.  
Paprika warming and stimulating, Capsicum annuum
  love desire  
Pepper and chilly stimulates sexual desire Piper nigrum
Pepper mince stimulates the mind and concentration, Mentha piperita
  activating memory, and clears thinking  
Rosemary acts on the brain strength Rosmarinus officinalis
  memory and nerves  
Sage improves the concentration Salvia pratensis
  and learning  
Thyme calms and ,relaxing Thymus vulgaris
Vanilla builds up, aphrodisiac, strong activity Vanilla panifolia
  on emotions, security, soft love  
  and memories of the youth  
Cinnamon Warm, velvet,security, Cassia vera
  in India used to increase love.  
Onions increase concentration Allium cepa.


Chocolate, the new EU Directive 2000/36

The new EU Directive replacing the Directive 73/241/EEC sets the labeling standards for cocoa and chocolate products as follow:


Milk chocolate

At least 25% of total dry cocoa solids, 14% dry milk solids, 2,5% dry non-fat cocoa solids, 3,5% milk fat.


Chocolate

At least 35% total dry cocoa solids, 18% cocoa butter, 14% dry non-fat cocoa solids.


Family milk chocolate

At least 20% total dry cocoa solids, 20% dry milk solids, 2,5% dry non-fat cocoa solids, 5% milk fat, 25% total fat.


Cocoa Butter Equivalents (CBE)

Vegetable fats, other than cocoa butter may be added to chocolate not exceeding 5% of the finished product.Addition of fats other than cocoa butter must be cited on the label.
Vegetable fats which are allowed to be added to chocolate are: Illipe,palm oil, sal, shea, kokum gurgi and mango kernel.
The addition of fats other than cocoa butter to chocolate and their products has risen many discussions. According to Mr. Kattenberg from ADM Cocoa liquefied chocolate containing cocoa butter when tempered correctly the resulting product should have a good shelf life. It seems that new technologies of the chocolate industry made the addition of vegetable fats other than cocoa butter unnecessary to prevent blooming. These Fats seem to benefit filled chocolate, ice cream and biscuit products.


Cocoa and chocolate directive 2000/36 EC

The addition of certain vegetable fats other than cocoa butter to chocolate products, up to a maximum of 5 %, should be permitted in all Member States; those vegetable fats should be cocoa butter equivalents.

Labelling, presentation and advertising in particular a listing of ingredients of cocoa and chocolate products must comply with Directive 79/112/EEC in order to provide consumers with correct information.

The labelling of the cocoa and chocolate products must indicate the total dry cocoa solids content by including the words: "cocoa solids:... % minimum".

The sales names "chocolate", "milk chocolate" and "couverture chocolate" may be supplemented by information or descriptions relating to quality criteria provided that the products contain:

- Chocolate

in the case of chocolate, not less than 43 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 26 % of cocoa butter,

- Milk chocolate

in the case of milk chocolate, not less than 30 % total dry cocoa solids and not less than 18 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, including not less than 4,5 % milk fat,

-Couverture chocolate

in the case of couverture chocolate, not less than 16 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids.

Sales names and definitions of cocoa, chocolate and their products

1. Cocoa butter

designates the fat obtained from cocoa beans or parts of cocoa beans with the following characteristics:

- free fatty acid content (expressed as oleic acid): not more than 1,75 %
- unsaponifiable matter (determined using petroleum ether): not more than 0,5 %, except in the case of press cocoa butter, where it shall not be more than 0,35 %

2.(a) Cocoa powder, cocoa

designate the product obtained by converting into powder cocoa beans which have been cleaned, shelled and roasted, and which contains not less than 20 % cocoa butter, calculated according to the weight of the dry matter, and not more than 9 % water;

(b) Fat-reduced cocoa, fat- reduced cocoa powder

designate cocoa powder containing less than 20 % cocoa butter, calculated according to the weight of the dry matter;

(c) Powdered chocolate, chocolate in powder

designate the product consisting of a mixture of cocoa powder and sugars, containing not less than 32 % cocoa powder;

(d) Drinkind chocolate, sweetened cocoa, sweetened cocoa powder

designate the product consisting of a mixture of cocoa powder and sugars, containing not less than 25 % cocoa powder; these names shall be accompanied by the term "fat-reduced" in the case where the product is fat-reduced as defined at (b).

3. Chocolate

(a) designates the product obtained from cocoa products and sugars which, subject to (b), contains not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;
(b) however, where this name is supplemented by the words:

- "Chocolate Vermicelli"

- "flakes"

the product presented in the form of granules or flakes must contain not less than 32 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 12 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;

- "couverture"

the product must contain not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 31 % cocoa butter and not less than 2,5 % of dry non-fat cocoa solids;

- "Gianduja"

(or one of the derivatives of the word "gianduja") nut chocolate: the product must be obtained firstly from chocolate having a minimum total dry cocoa solids content of 32 % including a minimum dry non-fat cocoa solids content of 8 %, and secondly from finely ground hazelnuts in such quantities that 100 g of the product contain not less than 20 g and not more than 40 g of hazelnuts. The following may be added:
milk and/or dry milk solids obtained by evaporation, in such proportion that the finished product does not contain more than 5 % dry milk solids;
almonds, hazelnuts and other nut varieties, either whole or broken, in such quantities that, together with the ground hazelnuts, they do not exceed 60 % of the total weight of the product.

4. Milk chocolate

(a) designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars and milk or milk products, which, subject to (b)contains:

- not less than 25 % total dry cocoa solids,
- not less than 14 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat,
- not less than 2,5 % dry non-fat cocoa solids,
- not less than 3,5 % milk fat,
- not less than 25 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat).

(b) However, where this name is supplemented by the words:

- "Milk Chocolate Vermicelli"

-"flakes"

the product presented in the form of granules or flakes must contain not less than 20 % total dry cocoa solids, not less than 12 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, and not less than 12 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat),

- Couverture

the product must have a minimum total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat) content of 31 %,

- "Gianduja"

(or one of the derivatives of the word "gianduja")

- Nut milk chocolate

the product must be obtained firstly from milk chocolate having a minimum content of 10 % of dry milk solids, obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat and secondly from finely ground hazelnuts, in such quantities that 100 g of the product contain not less than 15 g and not more than 40 g of hazelnuts. Almonds, hazelnuts and other nut varieties may also be added, either whole or broken, in such quantities that, together with the ground hazelnuts, they do not exceed 6% of the total weight of the product.

(c) Where in this name the word "milk" is replaced by:
- "cream": the product must have a minimum milk fat content of 5,5 %,
- "skimmed milk" the product must have a milk fat content not greater than 1 %.
(d) The United Kingdom and Ireland may authorise the use in their territory of the name "milk chocolate" to designate the product referred to in point 5, on condition that the term is accompanied in both cases by an indication of the amount of dry milk solids laid down for each of the two products, in the form "milk solids: ...% minimum.

5. Family milk chocolate

designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars and milk or milk products and which contains:

- not less than 20 % total dry cocoa solids,
- not less than 20 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or fullskimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat,
- not less than 2,5 % dry non-fat cocoa solids,
- not less than 5 % milk fat,
- not less than 25 % total fat (cocoa butter and milk fat).

Detection and quantification of cocoa-butter equivalents (CBEs) in milk chocolate to find chocolate fraud [273]

The Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) recommends the use of the Joint Research Centre (JRC) method to determine the amount of vegetable fats other than cocoa butter in chocolate products, which is limited to 5% by the Chocolate Directive 2000/36/EC.

The JRC developed two methods to determine foreign fats in dark chocolate and another method to test milk chocolate. The development of this method took more time because the chemical composition and physical properties of vegetable fat resembles those of cocoa butter very closely and the milk fats in milk chocolate interfere with vegetable fats.

6. White chocolate

designates the product obtained from cocoa butter, milk or milk products and sugars which contains not less than 20 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % dry milk solids obtained by partly or wholly dehydrating whole milk, semi- or full-skimmed milk, cream, or from partly or wholly dehydrated cream, butter or milk fat, of which not less than 3,5 % is milk fat.

7. Filled chocolate, chocolate with ... filling, chocolate with ...centre

designate the filled product, the outer part of which consists of one of the products defined in 3, 4, 5 and 6. The designations do not apply to products, the inside of which consists of bakery products, pastry, biscuit or edible ice.
The outer chocolate portion of products bearing one of these names shall constitute not less than 25 % of the total weight of the product.

Chocolate a la taza

designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars, and flour or starch from wheat, rice or maize, which contains not less than 35 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter and not less than 14 % dry non-fat cocoa solids, and not more than 8 % flour or starch.

9. Chocolate familiar a la taza

designates the product obtained from cocoa products, sugars, and flour or starch from wheat, rice or maize, which contains not less than 30 % total dry cocoa solids, including not less than 18 % cocoa butter and not less than 12 % dry non-fat cocoa solids, and not more than 18 % flour or starch.

10. A chocolate or a praline

designates the product in single-mouthful size, consisting of:

- filled chocolate, or
- a single chocolate or a combination or a mixture of chocolate within the meaning of the definitions given in 3, 4, 5 or 6 and other edible substances, provided that chocolate constitutes not less than 25 % of the total weight of the product.

The directive 200/36/EC prohibits the addition of animal fats and their preparations not deriving solely from milk to chocolate and related products.

Vegetable fats allowed to be added to chocolate and related products

According to the Directive 2000/36 EEC the vegetable fats which are allowed up to an extend of 5 %, must comply with the following criteria:

(a) they are non-lauric vegetable fats, which are rich in symmetrical monounsaturated triglycerides of the type Palmitic-Oleic-Palmitic, Palmitic-Oleic-Stearic, and Stearic-Oleic-Stearic;

(b) they are miscible in any proportion with cocoa butter, and are compatible with its physical properties (melting point and crystallisation temperature, melting rate, need for tempering phase);

(c) they are obtained only by the processes of refining and/or fractionation, which excludes enzymatic modification of the triglyceride structure.

The following vegetable fats, obtained from the plants listed below, may be used:

Usual name of vegetable fat Scientific name of the plants
1. Illipe, Borneo tallow or Tengkawang Shorea spp
2. Palm-oil Elaeis guineesis
  Elaeis olifera
3. Sal Shorea robusta
4. Shea Butyrospermum parkii
5. Kokum gurki Garcinia indica
6. Mango kernel Mangifera indica


Codex Standard for chocolate and chocolate products (CODEX STAN 87-1981, Rev. 1 - 2003)


Chocolate as functional food

Developments on the confectionery and chocolate sector leads to sugar-free products such as isomalt with addition of green tea, zinc, calcium antioxidants in form of vitamins A, C and E, dietary fibres such as inulin and oligofructose with claims that the active ingredients help protect cells, reinforce the natural defence of the body or stimulate intestinal microflora. Interest is also risen on chewy confectionery with acacia gum, inclusion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in dairy ingredients to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Industry is also looking forward to incorporate phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidyl serine to increase mind function.

These claims are dangerous to public health as they suggest that confectioneries and chocolate are healthy, well balanced foods. The high content of saturated fatty acids from cocoa butter, the high caloric content without sufficient dietary fibres and to much monosaccharides stand for unbalanced foods which should be consumed reluctantly. Chocofillings, snacks and energy bars should not replace the 10 oclock breakfast The small amount of active ingredients are a help for sales and do not improve health of the consumer.

Catechines in chocolate

Chocolate with high content of cacao is rich in catechines which are members of the group of flavonoids. The content of catechines in chocolate is related to the amount of the percentage of cacao of the product.
Bitter chocolate contains 53,3 mg catechines / 100 g.
Milk chocolate contain 15,9 mg/100 g [274]


Food supplements

Food supplement may be useful in case of stress, depressions, signs of overfatigue, diseases and convalescence.In supermarkets the following articles are sold as food supplements: Beer yeasts, gelee royale, wheat germs, fish oil capsules, energy drinks, Ginseg, multi vitamin capsules, Valerian capsules and others.Remember, they do not work wonders their function is a complement to other main factors.


Organic food

Organic food is being regarded as free from pesticides, chemicals and additives. It should be better for environment as usual food and helps to preserve nature. It should be free of GMO.
To reduce the number of bacteria in organic food Antibac is used as a natural keeping and preserving compound consisting of natural fruit acids. It works by blocking the vital processes linked with the anabolism of the microbes.The pH value of water is lowered and stabilised, creating an environment which is unsuitable for a number of pathogen microorganisms. Harmless lacto bacillus are not affected.

According to the Reiner Group, which produces Antibac, cut surfaces and breaks on vegetables and other products are sealed and the enzymes are inactivated. Discolouration is reduced and texture of the product is being maintained.


Gelatine

Gelatine is made from bones skin and useless parts from cattle, pigs and nowadays from fish (for non-mammalian special products), through partial hydrolysis of the collagen present in these animal parts which are collected in slaughterhouses, meat-cutting facilities and hide-processing plants.
Gelatine contains important aminoacids:
Glycine..........27%
Proline..........16%
Hydroxyproline...14%


Gelatine as dietary supplement

According to the report of the experts of food chemistry in Germany, gelatine and hydrolysed gelatine have no special physiological properties and have no positive effect on cartilage or joints.
Amino acids resulting from the hydrolysis of gelatine are also available from other foods. The claim " joint lubrication" does not correspond to truth.
The hydrolysis is made with acids or with alkaline.
As BSE cases are getting more frequent in Europe, with main incidence in UK and Portugal gelatine has turned out to be a possible source of infection of CJD disease in all kind of foods which were prepared with gelatin and also drugs using gelatin as coverings for capsules pills and so on. Gelatin was used in human nutrition for many centuries. as a good source of seven out of eight essential aminoacids and was a natural ingredient which was better tolerated as the new chemical modified starches and thickening agents. In the last two decades profit thinking of industry and business has made this natural food to become a menace to public health.

Influenza and probiotic bacteria

The Second European Influenza Conference in Malta 11-14 September 2005 presented the findings of researches related to probiotic bacteria and influenza.

Most probiotic bacteria are promoted for improving gut health. The findings presented at the Conference demonstrate the benefits of probiotic bacteria not only to gut health, but also improve the immune system.

According to findings presented at the European Influenza Conference, the probiotic bacteria are thought to activate certain defence cells in the immune system, particularly the T cell.

This mechanism is supported by the new trial led by Dr. Michael de Vrese at the Federal Researche Centre of Nutrition and Food in Kiel. He observed higher levels of cytotoxic plus T suppressor cells (CD8+) and T helper cells (CD4+) in a subsample of the probiotic group after just two weeks of supplementation. The bacteria which were included in this study include Lactobacillus gasseri PA 16/8, Bifidobacterium longum SP 07/3, and B. bifidum MF 20/5 [275]

Vaccinations

Vaccinations are key in managing seasonal influenza. In a pandemic vaccines matching the new virus strain can only be developed once it has been isolated at the start of the global outbreak. The WHO estimates that it may take up to six month to develop and market a vaccine that matches the circulating pandemic strain 5. The stockpiling of antivirals has therefore been recommended by the WHO as part of its Pandemic Preparedness Plan.

Antivirals

Antivirals are required that are effective against both influenze A and B, however in a pandemic situuation efficacy against only influenza A will be required. M2 inhibitors, amantadine and rimantadine, and the neuraminidase inhibitors, oseltamivir and zanamivir are available drugs against influenza.

Neuranimidase inhibitors present advantages over M2 inhibitors and are the treatment of choice for seasonal and pandemic influenza.


Safety and efficacy of the anti-influenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu) questioned [276]

The World Health Organization in 2002 recommended governments to stockpile oseltamivir and zanamivir (Relenza, GlaxoSmithKline) - neuraminidase inhibitor drugs as treatment in the event of an influenza pandemic. Billions of dollars were spent, now doubts on its safety and efficacy arises.
Jefferson et al 2012 published at the Cochrane Library a review of unpublished data unveiling inconsistencies. Previously unpublished material from15 studies on oseltamivir and 10 studies on zanamivir were used in this study, however, 42 studies could not be reviewed because of insufficient information. The researchers sought manufacturer explanations of discrepancies in the data. GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) disclosed individual patient data and responded to queries, but Roche did not provide complete clinical study reports. Roche failed to provide transparency of their data.

In a foregoing study of 2009, Jefferson and his group of researchers concluded that neuraminidase inhibitors are not effective. Neuraminidase inhibitors might be regarded as optional for reducing the symptoms of seasonal influenza. Paucity of good data has undermined previous findings for oseltamivir's prevention of complications from influenza. [277]

Identifying and minimising data bias, consequences of oseltamivir studies [278]

Toby Lasserson and David Tovey commented in an Editorial of 18 Jan 2012 the issue of The Cochrane Library Jefferson et al 2012 ”Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults and children (review)”. The review of unpublished data on oseltamivir unveiled inconsistencies. Previously unpublished material from15 studies on oseltamivir and 10 studies on zanamivir were used in this study, however, 42 studies could not be reviewed because of insufficient information.

The Jefferson et al 2012 review of oseltamivir studies

The Jefferson study could not access the entire set of documents. The available data confirmed that oseltamivir shortened the time to alleviation of symptoms by around 21 hours compared with placebo. Many uncertainties, however, remain unresolved and question the mechanism of action of these drugs, in particular that of oseltamivir. Further, the study doubts the hypothesis that oseltamivir does not affect antibody production.

The editorial of Lasserson and Tovey stresses that the study of Jefferson et al demonstrates that systematic reviews can be biased when only restricted research data are included. Bias is known in scientific publications, and is an inclination to present or hold a partial perspective at the expense of other also valid alternatives. A common bias in scientific publications is that 'positive' results are more likely to be published and published sooner, than those with 'negative' results. To avoid misleading results it should be made sure that systematic reviews avoid bias.

The effects on other studies

The Jefferson et al review rises question which other review need to be re-evaluated, what measures should be taken to correct errors, and how to include data obtained from regulatory agencies? The Cochraine Library awaits the maturation of trial registration repositories and better disclosure of data.

The Cochrane Collaboration is supporting a new research project that aims to identify when and how exploration of regulatory and licensing agency data is needed. Systematic reviews should adopt the methods developed by Jefferson et al 2012. To improve the methodology of systematic reviews the Cochraine Editorial Unit presented methodological expectations. [279] http://www.editorial-unit.cochrane.org/meci


Chicken soup and therapy of colds

Scientists of the University of NebrasKa Medical Center found that chicken soup contains several ingredients that affect the immune system of the body.
It helps to stop the movement of neutrophils that eat bacteria and cellular debris which are released in great numbers by viral infection like colds. Neutrophil activity can stimulate the release of mucous which may be the cause of the coughs and stuffy nose caused by upper respiratory infections such as colds. Vitamins and other agents in the ingredients could possibly have a biological action.

Effect of global transport on local fauna

Killer shrimp Dikerogammarus villosus coming from Romania endanger the ecological system of the Rhine. Their origin is the Black Sea and are hidden in the system of cooling water of great container ships.
Dikerogammarus feeds itself from flies, worms and other shrimps. It is being feared that Dikerogammarus will find its way to the great seas in North America menacing there the biological system.
This is an example of effects of excessive global transportation endangering local micro fauna.


Acrylamide

Acrylamide, a potential carcinogen is likely to be formed in a wide rage of foods, specifically starchy foods which are fried or baked.such as potato chips roasted asparagus, banana chips, toasted English muffins, tacco shells, pretzels
The natural occurring amino acid asparagine coupled with a carbonyl source such as reducing sugar like dextrose is a precursor to acrylamide in foods.

Trace amounts of acrylamide can be formed by boiling, significant formation generally requires a processing temperature of 120°C or higher.

Most acrylamide is accumulated during the final stages of baking, grilling or frying processes as the moisture content of the food falls and the surface temperature rises, with the exception of coffee where levels fall considerably at later stages of the roasting process.

Acrylamide seems to be stable in the majority of the affected foods in the majority of the affected foods, with the exception of ground coffee where the acrylamide level declines during storage over months

The limiting precursor in cereals is asparagine while fructose and glucose are more important in potatoes. Other important factors are pH and water content.

According to UN scientists meeting in Rome in February 2005 the major contributing foods to total exposure for most countries were:
Potato chips (60 - 30 per cent )
Potato crisps ( 6 - 46 per cent )
Coffee (13 - 39 per cent )
Pastry and sweet biscuits (10 - 20 per cent )
Bread and toasts (10 - 30 per cent )
Other foods (Less than 10 per cent of exposure)

Acrylamide linked to breast cancer [280]

Pelle Thonning Olesen and colleagues 2008 found a positive association between an increased acrylamide haemoglobin level and the development of breast cancer.

Acrylamide had been found to to cause cancer in laboratory rats, in carbohydrate-rich foods. Tobacco smoking also generates substantial amounts of acrylamide.

Despite being a carcinogen in the laboratory, many epidemiological studies have reported that actual exposition to acrylamide in food is too low to be of concern.

Pelle Thonning Olesen concludes in his publication that all previous epidemiological studies have been based on food frequency questionnaires, and that the risk of breast cancer doubles with a tenfold increase in the acrylamide-haemoglobin level. There is a stronger association for oestrogen receptor positive breast cancer.

The authors say that it is uncertain whether breast cancer is instead related to other chemical compounds formed along with acrylamide during the heating of foods and that some of the acrylamide may come from sources other than food.

The Netherlands Cohort Study on diet and cancer [281]

Janneke Hogervorst and colleagues 2007 increased risks of postmenopausal endometrial and ovarian cancer with increasing dietary acrylamide intake, particularly among never-smokers. Risk of breast cancer was not associated with acrylamide intake.

The HEATOX Study [282]

The HEATOX risk characterization concludes that the evidence of acrylamide posing a cancer risk for humans has been strengthened, and that acrylamide is not the only genotoxic compound formed when heating food. Furan, HMF and other compounds have been investigated.

A database of more than 8 carcinogens based on their chemical structure, has been compiled to aid future research. Acrylamide reduction methods for industry and for home are highlighted.

How to reduce acrylamide in baked and fried foods

The most effective reduction of acrylamide has been achieved by using the enzyme asparaginase to selectively remove asparagine prior to heating. This process is, however limited to specific products manufactured from liquidised or slurried materials.

Variety selection and plant breeding, controlling growth and storage factors affecting sugar concentration in potatoes, pre-treatment of potato pieces by soaking or blanching and prolonged yeast fermentation time in breadmaking is being studied as possible acrylamide reduction.

Calcium chloride preventing acrylamide formation [285]

Gokmen and Senyuva found that the formation of acrylamide was reduced by 95% in fried potatoes when dipped for 60 minutes in calcium chloride at room temperature before frying at 170°. According to the authors the Schiff base of asparagines, intermediate of acrylamide, was prevented. Colour and texture of French fries and crisps were not affected.

Calcium chloride was found to be the best choice to reduce acreylamide in potato crisps [286]

Shiyi Ou and colleagues 2007 tested the food additives ferulic acid, catechin, calcium chloride, sodium bisulfite, and l-cysteine on inhibition of acrylamide formation. They found that acrylamide formation in fried potato crisps was significantly reduced immersing the potato slices in solutions of l-cysteine and solution of CaCl2. Immerging the potato slices in a solution of 5 g/l of CaCl2 was the best choice because of its low price and the acceptable mouth feel of fried crisps. Industrial blanching at 85° reduced the formation of acrylamide by 85% when potato slices were immersed in the solution.

L-cysteine and Calcium chloride are promising additives to reduce acrylamide potato chips [287]

Frederic Mestdagh and colleagues 2008 found L-cysteine to reduce the acrylamide content in the most effective way, with a reduction of about 92 per cent. L-lysine and glycine were found less effective additives in the study.
Organic acids like citric, acetic, and L-lactic acid reduced the acrylamide content but not as much as L-cysteine or calcium chloride. The acrylamide lowering effect of the organic acids was related to a low pH.

Dipping potatoes in a solution of Calcium chloride was found to inhibit the formation of acrylamide by up to 95% during frying according to the study of Gökmen and Senyuva 2007. [288]

The inhibition of acrylamide formation of ferulic acid, catechin, calcium chloride, sodium bisulfite and l-cysteine were tested by Shiyi Ou and colleagues 2007 and found l-cysteine the most efficient agent but CaCl2 is most potential. They suggest the immersion of potato slices in CaCl2 solution at 5 g/L to reduced acrylamide formation by more than 85% in fried crisps. [286]


Reports and statements on acrylamide [289]

Acrylamide (CH2=CHCONH2) is neurotoxic and carcinogenic in laboratory animals. JECFA (FAO/WHO Joint expert Committee on Food Additives)cautioned in April 2005 that there are uncertainties in its conclusion as the toxicological database is incomplete and recommended that (FAO/WHO, 2005):

The CIAA Confédération des Industries Agro-Alimentaires issued in 2005 guidelines related to successful procedures on reducing acrylamide formation during manufacturing processes.

References

EC (European Commission), 2002. Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) on new findings regarding the presence of acrylamide in food. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out131_en.pdf

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2005. Draft Opinion of the Scientific Committee on a harmonised approach for risk assessment of compounds which are both genotoxic and carcinogenic (in consultation process). Available at http://www.efsa.eu.int/science/sc_commitee/sc_consultations/882_en.html

FAO/WHO (Food and Agricultural Organisation/World Health Organisation), 2005. Summary and conclusions of the sixty-forth meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), pp. 7-17. Available at http://www.who.int/ipcs/food/jecfa/summaries/en/summary_report_64_final.pdf

Citric acid and glycine and reduction of acrylamide formation [290]

Professor Don Mottram from the School of Food Biosciences at the University of Reading leaded a study focused on how to suppress the formation of acrylamide without detrimentally affecting flavour formation using citric acid and glycine.

The scientists noted that citric acid limited the generation of volatiles, particularly the alkylpyrazines which are responsible for flavour. Glycine increased the total volatile yield by promoting the formation of certain alkylpyrazines, namely, 2,3-dimethylpyrazine, trimethylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine, tetramethylpyrazine, and 2,5-diethyl-3-methylpyrazine. However, the formation of other pyrazines and Strecker aldehydes was suppressed.

To minimise the impact on flavour but still achieve the desired reduction in acrylamide levels, the reseachers propose that the opposing effects of the treatment with citric acid limiting the generation of volatile flavour compounds, in particular the alkylpyrazines, and glycine, which promotes the formation of certain alkylpyrazines but does not suppress the formation of certain Strecker aldehydes.

The combination of the two compounds in 0.39% w/w for each, does not suppress the formation of certain Strecker aldehydes on total volatile yield and may be used to best advantage in reducing acrylamide.


Formation of acrylamide from wheat gluten [291]

The scientific team from the Institute of Food Technology at Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, revealed different acrylamide formation mechanisms describing pyrolytic acrylamide formations in purified wheat gluten and gluten-supplemented wheat bread rolls.

The gluten was dry heated at temperatures ranging from 160 to 240° for 8 to 12 min and analysed for acrylamide and cinnamic amide. Under these conditions acrylamide could be detected up to 3997 g/kg gluten dry weight. Cinnamic amide was detected and unambiguously identified in the gluten samples, thus confirming the proposed formation of acrylamide from proteins.

The manner in which acrylamide was formed makes the German team's study interesting . After gluten was added to bread roll dough, protein pyrolysis to form acrylamide in the complex food matrix was assessed. In this study the contents of asparagine and reducing sugars were diminished by adding wheat gluten.

In contrast to the expectation with respect to the well-established common formation mechanism of acrylamide, it increased from 53.4 to 63.9 g/kg (+20 per cent), which was in good correlation with the higher proportion of gluten. Cinnamic amide could be found in crusts of bread rolls. The scientists claim that their research provides evidence of pyrolytic formation of acrylamide from wheat gluten.

Acrylamide formation in foods high in fat and low in carbohydrates [292]

Capuano and colleagues 2010 report that carbonyl compounds derived from lipid oxidation in high-fat and low water foodstuffs induce the formation of acrylamide even in sugar-free, where carbonyls come from lipids.

The authors found that lipid oxidation positively influenced the formation of acrylamide. Catechins Acrylamide formation is being reduced by catechins which trap carbohydrates and/or prevent lipid oxidation, say the authors. The Lipid oxidation theory is being backed by the fact that sunflower systems were more prone to produce acrylamide than model systems containing palm oil which is less susceptible to oxidation.

Higher water content of foods produced less acrylamide compared with dry foods. Evaporative cooling may increase the effect of catechin and lipid oxidation was retarded. The authors concluded that lipid oxidation is an important factor for acrylamide formation in low-carbohydrate dry foods.

CIAA Acrylamide Toolbox [293] [294]

The CIAA Acrylamide "Toolbox" provides descriptions of the intervention steps being evaluated by food manufacturers. In some cases the procedures are already being used by food processors, are undergoing testing or are the result of laboratory studies.

The CIAA stresses that some of the tools and parameters of this guide will also be helpful within the context of domestic food preparation and in catering establishments, where stringent control of cooking conditions may be more difficult.

The latest update in December 2007, includes the feasibility of the enzyme asparaginase in production of biscuits on an industrial scale.

The asparginase enzyme products on market are Preventase from DSM obtained from Aspergillus niger and Acrylaway from Novozyme from Aspergillus oryzae they transform asparagine in aspartic acid which cannot form acrylamide. Nutritional value, browning and crispness remain are not affected. Biscuits are being tested, promising a 70 percent of reduction of acrylamide.

Pedreschi and colleagues 2007 report that blanching potato strips at 75° for 10 min followed by soaking in an 10,000 ASNU/l asparaginase solution at 40 degrees Celsius for 20 minute reduced acrylamide formation after frying by 60 per cent. [295]


Glycidamide

The update of December 2007 stresses that epoxidation of acrylamide by fatty acid hydroperoxides, which are formed during lipid peroxidation, could be another pathway for the interactions of acrylamide with food constituents. Glycidamide is the genotoxic metabolite of acrylamide. Download the CIAA Acrylamide TOOLBOX Rev 11 December 2007 at:
http://www.ciaa.eu/documents/brochures/toolbox%20rev11%20nov%202007final.pdf

Soaking Frech fries in standing water reduces formation of acrylamide [296]

Rachel S Burch and colleagues 2008 investigated simple measures which could be used to reduce acrylamide formation in industrial and home-cooked French fries. The authors found that washing for 30 seconds under running tap water and then soaking in standing water for 30 min or 2 hours raw French fries before cooking led to reductions in acrylamide of up to 48 per cent and the colour was lighter compared with untreated French fries.

The authors stress that standing water removes sugars from the potato and extracts less starch from the surface of the potato than running water. Lower acrylamide levels were found when starch is not removed.

Surface browning as indicator of acrylamide formation

The work of Jackson and Al-Taher focuses on the effects of cooking conditions (e.g. time/temperature) on acrylamide formation in consumer-prepared foods, the use of surface colour (browning) as an indicator of acrylamide levels in some foods, and methods for reducing acrylamide levels in home-prepared foods.

They found that acrylamide levels in cooked food depended greatly on the cooking conditions and the degree of "doneness", as measured by the level of surface browning. Analysis of the surface colour by colorimetry indicated that some components of surface colour ("a" and "L" values) correlated highly with acrylamide levels. This indicates that the degree of surface browning could be used as an indicator of acrylamide formation during cooking. [297]

Predictive model for acrylamide [298]

Enda Cummins, a researcher at University College Dublin, developed and presented an acrylamide predictive computer model for industrial and home at the Foodsim 2006 in June 15-17 at the University of Naples, Italy.

This model was developed for the production and consumption of chips and crisps in Ireland. For other foods and outside of Ireland the model must be adjusted to take account of the specific amino acids and sugars of each food.

According to Cummins the use of potato cultivars with low sugar levels, blanching, lowering cooking time and temperature reduces acrylamide significantly. Extended frying times above six minutes and above 180° should be avoided. Soaking and washing were found to be less efficient. The initial selection of cultivars and in the initial levels of glucose and fructose was found by Cummins to be most effective way to reduce the formation ofd acrylamide in processed potato foods.

Predictive results

His model predicts a mean acrylamide level of 317 micrograms per kilogram in fried potatoes, 720 micrograms per kilogram in crisps, and 1073 micrograms per kilogram in home made french fries (industrial washing and blanching processes are not considered in home cooking).
Male consumption patterns of french fries and crisps result in 0.27 micrograms of acrylamide per kilogram of body weight per day, and females slightly less, being far below of the World Health Organisation recommended daily intake (RDI) is one microgram per kilogram of body weight per day.

Researches with green tea and bomboo extract to reduce acrylamide formation in foods [299] [300]

Yu Zhang and Ying Zhang investigated the antioxidant-rich extracts of bamboo leaves (AOB) and extract of green tea (EGT). They found that when both were added in levels of 0,1 micrograms, the reduction rates of formation of acrylamide of 74,4 per cent for the use of AOB and 74,3 per cent for the use of EGT were achieved.

The researchers tested the addition the extracts at 180 degrees Celsius in an oven under low-moisture conditions. The active components of the extracts reducing the acrylamide formation were homoorientin for AOB and epigallocatechin gallate for EGT.

The antioxidants of bamboo leaves had beenstudied before by Zhang. The authors obtained 74,1% and 76,1% reduction of acrylamide in potato crisps and French fries with AOB addition of 0,1% and 0,01% (w/w), respectively and an immersion time of 60 s. According to the authors acrylamide formation in potato-based foods could be reduced significantly with the Extract of antioxidants of bamboo leaves and original crispness and flavour of potato products may stay unaltered.

The authors call for more research on natural antioxidants to reduce the formation of acrylamide.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in grilled, fried or broiled meat and cheese products

[301] Helen Vlassara and colleagues (2007) found new toxins in grilled meat and cheese. Advanced glycation end products AGEs are a group of compounds formed from the non-enzymatic reaction of reducing sugars with the free amino groups of proteins in grilled, fried or broiled animal products and sterilised or pasteurised meat products and are responsible for desirable tastes and smells of these foods.

These compounds are linked with inflammation, insulin resistance, diabetes, vascular and kidney disease, and Alzheimer's.

According to the authors the kidney function of older people slows down and it might be the cause why the capacity to remove AGEs from the body is reduced. People aged 65 and older were found to have higher AGE levels in their blood as people younger than age 45. AGEs accumulates in the tissues, take over the body's own built-in defences, pushing them toward a state of inflammation leading to disease or early ageing.

N-carboxymethyl-lysine (CML) and methylglyoxal (MG) derivatives are found in blood and are used to measure the body content of AGEs. They correlate with indicators of inflammation and oxidative stress According to the authors, indicators of both AGEs and oxidative stress are directly influenced by the intake of dietary AGEs, independent of age or energy intake. The researchers call for reduced consumption of these oxidants to prevent age-related diseases, especially in an ageing population.

The authors advice to avoid excessive intake of fried, broiled, and grilled foods and call for new methods of cooking to reduce AGE intake, particularly steaming, boiling or making stews, keeping the heat down and maintaining the water content in food.

AGEs and diabetes [302]

Wautier and Guillausseau in a review in 2001 focuses on the consequences of hyperglycemia on the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), and on the role of AGEs and of their specific receptors (RAGE) in the functional and anatomical alterations of the vascular wall.

The data of this review emphasize the role of AGEs and of the interaction of AGE modified proteins with diabetic mesangial cells in glomerulosclerosis development. (scarring of the kidneys' tiny blood vessels, the glomeruli, the functional units in the kidney that filter urine from the blood). The authors come to the conclusion that AGEs and RAGE play a central role in the development of chronic complications of diabetes.

Flavonoids and reduction of colorectal cancer risk [303]

Flavonoids such as isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and flavanones were assessed in a case-control study concerning colon cancer cases. A significant risk reductions were calculated by lead author Marta Rossi . The highest intake of flavonols was associated with a 46 per cent reduction in the risk of colorectal cancer, compared to people in the lowest intake group. No significant benefit of flavan-3-ols, flavanones, and total flavonoids was observed.

According to Marta Rossi and colleagues, flavonoids may have an important role in explaining the protective effects of vegetables, fruit, and, possibly, tea against cancer. The estimates did not substantially differ for colon and rectal cancers, as well as in strata of sex, age, and body mass index. The findings of this large study provide support for an inverse association of selected classes of flavonoids with colorectal cancer risk.

Several limitations of this study make further studies necessary. Other studies add further support of the five-a-day message for a healthy, balanced diet rich in fruit and vegetables. Blueberries, for instance, are a rich source of anthocyanidins, mainly delphinidin, cyaniding, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin, could stop the growth of liver cancer cells. [304]


Blueberries [304]

Blueberries and muscadine grapes are a source of polyphenols antioxidants such as phenolic acids, tannins, flavonols and anthocyanins and pterostilbene which reduces cholesterol. Three cultivars of blueberries ("Briteblue", "Tifblue" and "Powderblue") and four cultivars of muscadine grapes ("Carlos", "Ison", "Noble", and "Supreme") were assessed in a study lead by Weiguang Yi from the University of Georgia.

The inhibition of the blueberry and muscadine grapes extracts on liver cancer cell growth were studied using HepG2 cell cultures.

The greatest inhibitory effects were observed from the anthocyanin fractions. The main anthocyanidins present were delphinidin, cyaniding, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin.


The flavonol and tannin fractions showed intermediate activities.

The authors concluded that blueberries and muscadine grapes may contribute to reduction in liver cancer risk, proposing that incorporating blueberries into the diet could potentially reduce liver cancer risk.

Dynamic high pressure (DHP) technology for juices [305]

Alternative methods to heat pasteurisation of juices such as pulsed electric fields (PEF), pulsed magnetic fields, pulsed light, carbon dioxide, irradiation and high pressure have been proposed for the cold pasteurization.

PEF is based on the electromechanical instability of the cell membrane. It is not in use due to high costs of these systems.

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) requires a pressure of 350 Mpa for 30 min to achieve a 5 log reduction. This technology is not in use because treatment must be done in charges and is very costly on an industrial scale.

Dynamic high pressure (DHP) technology uses a pump to force a liquid under high pressure and high velocity through a very narrow and adjustable concentric orifice, bringing physical changes in the treated products due to the creation of a sudden pressure drop, very high exit flow velocity and evaporation.

Tahiri, Makhlouf, Paquin and Fliss researched the inactivation of bacteria using DHP. They came to the conclusion that DHP can become an alternative for cold pasteurization of fruit juices.

Non-Thermal preservation processes

Non-thermal processes are food preservation methods which do not use significant temperature increases. Ionizing radiation, pulsed-electrical field pasteurization and ultra high-pressure processing (UHF) are currently in use.

High intensity pulsed electric field (PEF) processing involves the application of pulses of high voltage (typically 20 - 80 kV/cm) to foods placed between 2 electrodes. PEF treatment is conducted at ambient, sub-ambient, or slightly above ambient temperature for less than 1 s, and energy loss due to heating of foods is minimized.

For food quality attributes, PEF technology is considered superior to traditional heat treatment of foods because it avoids or greatly reduces the detrimental changes of the sensory and physical properties of foods (Quass 1997). Although some studies have concluded that PEF preserves the nutritional components of the food, effects of PEF on the chemical and nutritional aspects of foods must be better understood before it is used in food processing.

Processing of apple and orange juices, of milk, liquid eggs and soups have been tested.

Technical drawbacks or limitations of the PEF technology are:

Cloudy apple juice healthier than clear one [307]

Apple juice is treated with enzyme to remove the pectin and starch content in order to avoid cloudiness of the product. 75% of the polyphenol content.of clear apple juice was found by Oszmianski and colleagues to be only 25% of that of cloudy apple juice.

According to the authors of the study the suppression of enzymatic browning conditions and the lack of clarification prevent the loss of polyphenols in cloudy apple juice.

The authors found 250 milligrams of polyphenols per litre in clear juice from Idared apple variety and 1044 milligrams per litre in cloudy juice made from the Champion apple variety. The authors come to the conclusion that health benefits are expected mainly in the case of cloudy apple juice consumption resulting from the high content of procyanidins.

Industrial processed (clear) apple juice and chronic non-specific diarrhoea (CNSD) [308]

According to Hoekstra and colleagues clear and cloudy apple juice differ in their fibre and non-absorbable monosaccharide and oligosaccharide contents. They found that clear apple juice significantly promoted diarrhoea and suggest that fructose, the increased availability of non-absorbable monosaccharides and oligosaccharides as a result of the enzymatic processing of apple pulp is the cause of apple juice induced CNSD in children.Cloudy apple juice did not influence stool frequency and consistency.

In case of toddler diarrhoea Hoekstra recommends that fruit juices, in particular clear apple juice, and other squashes should be limited to restore appetite at meal times.


Red grapefruits influencing serum lipid and antioxidant levels and cancer-preventive effect [309]

Shela Gorinstein and colleagues found that fresh red grapefruit contains higher quantities of bioactive compounds and has significantly higher antioxidant potential than blond grapefruit. Diet supplemented with fresh red grapefruit positively influences serum lipid levels of all fractions, especially serum triglycerides and also serum antioxidant activity.

They concluded that the addition of fresh red grapefruit to generally accepted diets could be beneficial for hyperlipidemic, especially hypertriglyceridemic, patients suffering from coronary atherosclerosis.

Kun Gao and colleagues found that naringenin , a citrus flavonoid, stimulates DNA repair following oxidative damage in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells.
They conclude that the cancer-preventive effects of citrus fruits demonstrated in epidemiological studies may be due in part to stimulation of DNA repair by naringin, which by stimulating base excision repair processes may prevent mutagenic changes in prostate cancer cells. [310]


Inulin and flavonoids from grapefruit [311]

Zenon Zdunczyk and colleagues found that flavonoid extract from grapefruit used as a single dietary supplement did not display a beneficial influence on cecal metabolism, increased pH, hydration of digesta, and lowered bacterial activity and SCFA concentration.
The authors suggest that the simultaneous intake of inulin and polyphenols could reduce the detrimental effects of the latter on cecal fermentation.

The authors conclude that simultaneous intake of inulin and polyphenols can decrease the detrimental effects of the latter on cecal fermentations.


Arteriosclerosis prevention

Diet rich in green and yellow vegetables [312]

Michael R. Adams and colleagues from the University of California in Los Angeles determined the effects of a diet rich in green and yellow vegetables on the development of atherosclerosis.

The results of this study indicate that a diet rich in green and yellow vegetables inhibits the development of atherosclerosis and may lead to the reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory pathways.

Vegetables contain a variety of micronutrients, such as carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E, and selenium that are potent antioxidants, and broccoli as a source of sulforaphane , an anti-inflammation compound.

Reduction of risk of hypertension with vegetable protein and cereal fibre [313]

The World Health Organisation (WHO) advices since 1991 to have five meals rich in fruit and vegetables to lower incidences of heart disease and some cancers.

According to Alvaro Alonso and colleagues fibre and protein intake can be associated with lower levels of blood pressure, but results from prospective cohorts are scarce, and none of them have been conducted outside the US. In a new study the scientists found that risk reduction was more important among men, obese and older individuals. Total or animal protein, total fibre as well as fibre from other sources different from cereal were not associated with the risk of HT.

The authors suggest that the relationship between fibre and insulin resistance could, in turn, affect blood pressure, or that vegetable protein could result in higher serum concentrations of certain amino acids such as L-arginine, L-tryptophan, and tyrosine could reduce hypertension.

Vegetable protein intake was inversely related to blood pressure. This finding is consistent with recommendations that a diet high in vegetable products be part of healthy lifestyle for prevention of high blood pressure and related diseases [314]

Definition of high blood pressure

Hypertension = blood pressure higher than 140/90 mm Hg,
Prehypertension = blood pressure 120/80 mmHg to 139/89 mmHg.


Frozen Food Standards

The growth of frozen food is largely due to the performance of frozen potatoes (chips and potato products) which is the largest sector in volume terms, growing 6.9% year-after-year.

Purchasing diagnostics reveal that frozen potatoes' growth is driven by households buying more of the category in 2003.

Other sectors in growth are ready meals and snacks. Ready meals are growing in volume 5.5% year-after-year, driven by retailer own brands and Heinz. Growth comes from price reduction and an increase in the amount bought per occasion. Healthy meals is a fast growing sector within this category although it remains a small player within ready meals.
Frozen snacks has seen strong growth (18.8% year-after-year volume) led by Tesco and Asda own label ranges. McCain's Micro range has also attained good growth in this category.
The traditional sectors such as frozen fish, green vegetables, red meat and pizza, are all in volume decline as consumers buy less.

Canned food

The process of canning was pioneered in the 1790s when a French confectioner, Nicolas Appert, discovered that the application of heat to food in sealed glass bottles preserved the food from deterioration. In about 1806 Appert's principles were successfully trialed by the French Navy on a wide range of foods including meat, vegetables, fruit and even milk.

Based on Appert's methods of food preservation the packaging of food in sealed airtight tin-plated wrought-iron cans was first patented by an Englishman, Peter Durand, in 1810.

Canned foods were greatly favoured by early explorers. Beginning in 1814 canned foods were sent to distant British colonies.

The very earliest cans were "tinned iron canisters", which were very heavy and needed a hammer and chisel to open them! They were also made one at a time, by hand. Today very light materials are employed with Ring-Pulloff system which need no tools to open them.

Dieting fads

Dieting and health trends with low-calorie and nutrient enriched products enjoying greater popularity. Meal replacement drinks, healthy snack bars and bakery products enriched with vitamins and calcium are considered as healthy. On the other hand, food deemed to be unhealthy, such as ice cream, savoury snacks, and cakes and pastries, has seen declining consumption.

It also revealed the growing awareness of prebiotics, a market still in development stage. But while today the European prebiotic market is restricted to a handful of companies (three companies hold 70 per cent of the market share), new entrants are expected as awareness grows and consumers become increasingly interested in gut health.

Closely related to probiotics, prebiotics are carbohydrates thought to stimulate the growth and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the gut. Ingredients that have so far been identified as having such activity include inulin, fructooligosaccharides, resistant starch and the sweetener tagatose.

Probiotics in animal breed

Some bacteria resent good activities in the animal gut. This will be used in animal feed for pork, poultry cattle and pet feed. Spores of Bacillu licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis cause a better digestion and help to control pathogenic bacteria. With these probiotics improved body weight of 9% and a better food conversion of 5% were found.

Probiotics in crops

10 to 60% of nitrogen accumulated in maize, rice, sugar cane and grass are of atmospheric provenience. In the many plants the assimilation is done by symbitic activities of nitrogen bacteria such as Azospirillum spp. and Gluconacetobacter.

Using Azospirillumm spp an increase of 30 percent of yield and a reduction of 40 percent of nitrogen fertilizer could be achieved in sugar cane, maize and oath.

Closely related to probiotics, prebiotics are carbohydrates thought to stimulate the growth and activity of certain beneficial bacteria in the gut. Ingredients that have so far been identified as having such activity include inulin, fructooligosaccharides, resistant starch and the sweetener tagatose.

Metabolic changes induced by probiotic bacteria [315]

Jeremy K. Nicholson and colleagues 2008 using nutrimetabonomics researche tools found that probiotic strains could alter intestinal bacteria populations, and that this significantly influenced major metabolic pathways. Nestlé strains of Lactobacillus paracasei and Lactobacillus rhamnosus were given to mice whose intestinal microflora had previously been changed to human gut microbes.

The researchers found that the supplementation with the probiotics led to changes in host intestinal microflora and this lead to changes in the metabolism of liver, blood, urine, and faeces, affecting energy, lipid and amino acid. The energy recovery from the diet was modified, with subsequent effects on circulating lipids in theplasma and metabolism of glucose in the liver and bile acids, which are important key in the metabolism of fatty acids.

Stressing the different metabolic effects of the two probiotics in the host, the authors suggest the possibility of giving probiotic combinations according to a person's individual metabolic profile.

Nutrimetabonomics was developed by Sunil Kochhar and colleagues at the Nestlé Research Center (Switzerland) and Imperial College London to correlate metabolic phenotypes with a behavioral phenotype such as an affinity for rich, creamy chocolate. The Method is an offspring of metabonomics, a discipline that uses metabolic profiles of bodily fluids such as blood plasma and urine to understand drug toxicity, pharmacological responsiveness, and other biological events. This method is applied to examine the effects that diet has on metabolism. [316]


Probiotics in farming:

Probiotics in animal breed: Some bacteria resent good activities in the animal gut. This will be used in animal feed for pork, poultry cattle and pet feed. Spores of Bacillu licheniformis and Bacillus subtilis cause a better digestion and help to control pathogenic bacteria. With these probiotics improved body weight of 9% and a better food conversion of 5% were found.

Bromate in bottled water

Bottled water was found in 2006 in US to exceed by far the maximum permissible amount of 0.01 g/L of bromate. Kurokawa and colleagues reported in 1986 that bromate ion is capable of causing kidney carcinomas in rats. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifies bromate ion as an increased risk of cancer. Its MCL is 0,01 g/l (10 ppb) for bottled drinking water. [317] [318] [319]

Bromate ion in drinking water is a disinfection byproduct. It is formed by the oxidation of bromide ion when ozone is used for disinfection.

Bromide ion is present in the majority of raw waters and changes to bromate during disinfection by ozone The speed of reaction increases in presence of calcium chloride. Reduction of bromate formation in drinking water when using ozonation as disinfection can be achieved by:
  1. Keeping pH 6.5 or below during ozonation.
  2. Adding ammonia before ozonation.
  3. Keeping dissolved ozone as low as possible.


Indulgent food

Ice cream, candies and biscuits are often seen as an indulge of healthy way of life rewarding for good results or conpensating for a loss.

Food industry grouped recently Chilled dairy desserts, cheese, ice cream, chocolate, cakes and biscuits as indulgent food category. Consumer trends indicate that, despite health concerns, full-fat ice cream and cookies, and other indulgence foods are not loosing their popularity.


Chocolate as beauty treatment [320]

Emma Little, a beauty therapist, introduced the chocolate beauty skin treatment. The treatment is a facial mask consisting of cacao butter, shea butter and high content of antioxidants rich melted chocolate. Their customers say that the skin is soft and smooth claiming it to be an effect of the cacao butter and the antioxidants of chocolate.

Starch

All starches have amylose-to-amylopectin ratios. As the amylopectin level increases, the thickening potential increases.

Waxy corn starch containing 100% amylopectin generally forms weaker gel systems, but is an excellent starch base for speciality starches. Starches that contain 50% to 80% amylose molecules form very rigid gel systems.
The size of the starch granules is another important characteristic which is responsible for the physical properties of starch.

[321] [322]
Starch Source % Amylose % Amylopectine Granule size Average size
      Range (microm) ((microm)
         
Waxi rice 0 100 2 - 13 5.5
High amylose corn 70 30 4 - 22 9.8
Corn,native 28 72 5 - 25 14.3
Corn,waxi 5 95    
Cassava 20 70 3 - 28 14
Waxi sorghum 0 100 3 - 27 16
Wheat 26 74 3 - 34 6.5, 19.5
Sweet potato 18 82 4 - 40 18.5
Arrow root 21 79 9 - 40 23
Sago 26 74 15 - 50 33
Potato 20 80 10 - 70 36

Labelling of modified starches

Modified starches must be labelled as such, using either the number or the name given in the table below.

In order to keep the label clean, special starches are being developed with native starch labelling. They have the same texture, viscosity and mouthfeeling of chemically modified ones.

Starch, physical modification

Physical modifications influence pre-cooking or pre-gelatinization and cold water-swelling (which create good dispersibility). There are also modifications that produce resistant starch.


Cross-linking

Cross-linking increases starch's stability during processing conditions such as heat, acids and mechanical shear. Cross-linking avoid viscosity loss and such conditions. It reinforces hydrogen bonding of starch chain-to-starch chain with a covalent chemical bond.


Chemical modification of starch

The chemical modification of starch is regulated and limited by food regulations. Acetic anydride or hydroxypropyl groups substitute the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl groups of carbon 2, 3 and 6 resulting a steric configuration which avoids the starch chains to hydrate with water. Hydrogen bonding with another starch chain cannot take place. Such modified starches have a lower cook temperature, increased clarity and water holding capacity.

Retrogradation is decreased resulting in increased cold storage stability and longer shelf-life.

Frozen foods

Production of frozen foods which are suitable to be thawen and heated in microwave devices use waxy cite which is cross-linked and substituted.

Conventional breeding techniques

Conventional breeding techniques have created genetic mutants with the result of waxy and high-amylose starches. By cross-breeding and through cultivation the ability to form a phosphate ester is enhanced. Waxy-based corn starch is popular in the U.S.


Micro encapsulation

Microencapsulation is a technique which provides a protective film on flavours, vitamins, and other components which are susceptible to evaporation, oxidation or heat damaging. Etheric oils, flavourings vitamins and other highly damageable ingredients are spray-dried together with starch providing a protective outer shell. Evaporation and oxidation is thus diminished improving handling and storage.

Esterified starches are generally used for encapsulation. These + have a lipophylic group in their molecule giving them emulsifying properties.

Emulsifying starches are also used in beverages which avoid dairy components because of religious or health concerns. These starches can replace sodium caseinate and emulsify lipophilic vitamins in these preparations.

Resistant starches: The nutritional value of resistant starch are used in low-carb products to lowers the glycemic index.

Resistant starches are produced from high-amylose starches, partially depolymerizing it and then allowing the smaller amylose chains of starch to reassociate and retrograde into a strong crystalline structure that melts at a high temperature. They have white colour, bland taste and low moisture binding ability.
The crystalline structure makes resistant starch resist human digestion.

Waxy maize starch containing 100% of amylopectin is highly branched and its derivative will be a good substitute for gum Arabic which is also high branched being similar in its functionality.

Sometimes a combination of starches and gums such as xanthan gum can reduce slimy mouthfeel which is a characteristic of some gums and some starches.


E-Numer INS-Number CAS Nr Mainterm
  1400 009004-53-9 Dextrins, white and yellow
  1401 065996-63-6 Acid treated starch
  1402   Alkaline modified starch
  1403 977075-42-5 Bleached starch
E1404 1404 065996-62-5 Oxidized starch
  1405   Enzyme treated starch
E1410 1410   Monostarch phosphate
  1411 058944-89-1 Distarch glycerol
E1412 1412 977088-75-7 Distarch phosphate
E1413 141 977043-58-5 3Phosphated distarch phosphate
E1414 1414 068130-14-3 Acetylated distarch phosphate
E1420 1420   Acetylated starch, mono starch acetate
  1421   Acetylated starch, mono starch acetate
E1422 1422 Acetylated distarch adipate  
  1423 053123-84-5 Acetylated distarch glycerol
E1440 1440 009049-76-7 Hydroxypropyl starch
E1442 1442 053124-00-8 Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate
  1443 059419-60-2 Hydroxypropyl distarch glycerol
E1450 1450 066829-29-6 Starch sodium octenyl succinate
E1451     Acetylated oxidised starch



Normal native starches consist of a mixture of 15-30% amylose and 70-85% Amylopectin.


Amylose

Amylose is composed of 250 to 2000 units and is responsible for the gelling property of starch. It is an unbranched helix chain. is a linear polymer of glucose linked with mainly α(1-4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands glucose units. [323]

The alfa(1-4) bonds promote the formation of a helix structure. The number of repeated glucose subunits (n) can be many thousands. Amylose starch is less readily digested than amylopectine. However it takes up less space so is preferred for storage in plants; it is how about 80% of the starch in plants is stored. The digestive enzyme amylase works on the ends of the starch molecule, breaking it down into sugars. [323]

Amylopectine

Amylopectin. It is a branching molecule anhydroglucose with many branch points. The molecular weight may reach as high as 80 000 000 and does not form a helical coil. Glucose units are linked in a linear way with alfa(1-4) bonds. Branching takes place with alfa(1-6) bonds occurring every 24 to 30 glucose units.

Its counterpart in animals is the glycogen (the principal storage form of glucose in animal cells) which has the same composition and structure, but with more extensive branching that occurs every 8 to 12 glucose units. [323]


Starch derivatives

Starch can be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates by acids, enzymes or a combination of the two.

Reformulating Fruit Yoghurt

There are many yoghurt with fruit products on market. Their content of added carbohydrates range from 11 to 13% of a mixture of sugar and glucose-fructose syrup. This mixture is an outcome of the corn syrup industry and sweetens the yoghurt. It manages shelf life of the Fruit Mix, its capability to be pumped over long distances and the way to handle it reduces costs.

The growing concern about obesity needs to have a look on it. The idea of having a serving of fruits with the yoghurt suggests a healthy product. On account of adding up to 13% of the mix of sugar, glucose-fructose, highly triggering the insulin mechanism, the diary business starts researches for an urgent reformulation of the Fruit-Yoghurt.

Actual ingredients of fruit yoghurt is a mixture of 50% fruit and 50% Sugar-Glucose-fructose from hydrolysed corn or sometimes wheat.
An alternative to the high fructose corn syrup content of fruit yoghurt a paste of banana paste, cantaloup melon and other sweet tropical fruits could replace the syrup. These pastes give the necessary rheologic stability to the fruit mixture and a natural sweetness. The modern equipment and sanitising programs allow it to handle the product without spoilage.

Meanwhile some efforts are being done by some supermarket chains such as Lidl Stores selling fruit yoghurt with sugar but without added glucose-fructose syrup. A small step, but a one in the right direction.

Other like PLUS and ALDI Stores, also strong in the European Market, have much work to phase out glucose-fructose syrup in fruit yoghurt.

Meanwhile the consumer should watch the ingredient list and avoid those products labelling added glucose-fructose syrup which may lead to obesity and diabetes.

New fruit sweetener with low glycemic [324]

A natural fruit concentrate produced in Spain by Wild Deprovesa from various fruits contains a wide range of sugars with a balanced ratio of the carbohydrates fructose, glucose and sucrose in the fruit concentrate - as it occurs naturally in fruit concentrate blends has a glycemic index of 34. That is the lowest index compared to other natural fruit sweeteners.

According to the producer some of the energy is available immediately, while the body also receives energy on a more sustained basis, being perfect for sport drinks and suitable for use in near water beverages, herbal or tea drinks with all-natural ingredients or beverages with a low glycemic index, in dairy products, bakery and confectionery as well as ice cream products.

This new sweetener may help dairy industry to reformulate the fruit yoghurt, soft drinks and other products using corn or wheat syrup leading to a clean label.

Fruit Up beverages using the product can be marketed as "sweetened with fruit". But remember: sweet foods and sweet drinks are loaded with calories. Sweet beverages are can lead to obesity and diabetes because of the high amount of liquids which are consumed in hot periods.

Yoshida found that pure fruit juices reduce the risk of diabetes, but cautions, that even too much fruit juice can cause an excess of calories and sugar. It is therefore wise to reduce these beverages. [325]

Sugar-sweetened beverages increase coronary heart disease in women [326]

Teresa Fung and colleagues 2009 wrote that studies linked full-calorie sugar-sweetened beverages with greater weight gain and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. The authors found in a recent study that women drinking two or more servings of sweetened beverages per day may increase their risk of heart disease by 35 per cent. Data from 88,520 women aged between 34 and 59 participating in the Nurses' Health Study were evaluated. In this study the authors note that artificially sweetened beverages did not increase the risk of coronary heart disease.

Fructose increasing coronary heart disease

According to Dr.Fung fructose increases triacylglycerol synthesis in the liver which, in elevated concentrations, increases coronary heart disease risk. Fructose also increases blood uric acid concentrations which reduces endothelial nitric oxide being a link between soft drink consumption and risk of coronary heart disease.

Other natural sweeteners on market

Fruit juice concentrates from pear, pineapple and peach.
Granulated fruit sweeteners are made from grape juice concentrate and rice syrup.
Date sugar
Honey
Barley malt
Brown rice syrup
Maple syrup
Stevia (Stevia rebaudiana)
Simple sugars: Glucose, fructose , galactose.

Stevioside and rebaudiana A (Rebiana) from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni

Stevia is grown by small farmers in Paraguay and Brazil. Its culture is very difficult and does not suit global agriculture practices. That is why great agricorporations did not started extensive stevia plantations.

The dried leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni, contain the sweet-tasting stevioside 3-8%, rebaudioside A approximately 1%, D, and E, and dulcosides A about 0.27%. Rebaudioside D and E, together with dulcoside B are minor components counting for 0.03 to 0.04% of the dried leaves. Stevioside is a glycoside with a glucosyl and sophorosyl residue attached to the aglycon steviol.The structure of rebaudioside A is the same as that of stevioside except that the sophorosyl residue is replaced by a glucosyl-(1-3)-sophorosyl residue. Stevioside and rebaudioside A are therefore in focus of safety and stability studies.

Sweetening power

The sweetening powers of stevioside is 100, rebaudioside A 130, and the dulcosides 30 times that of sucrose. The food industry is eager to introduce stevioside and rebaudioside A in its products because it is a natural, and overall a low priced sweetener.

Natural Stevia a strong sweetener is also source of antioxidants [327]

Stevia is derived from the plant stevia rebaudiana, which grows in South America. It is told to have 300 times the sweetness of sugar. The ingredient is not approved for use in food yet in Europe, but the EFSA is carrying out a safety assessment of stevia. Petition to approve stevia by the FDA to uses in food is being expected.

Srijani Ghanta and colleagues 2007, found the extract from stevia leaves to be rich in antioxidant polyphenols such as quercitrin, apigenin, and kaempferol, and could protect DNA from oxidative damadge. Its efficacy is better than that of quercetin.

The authors conclude that Stevia rebaudiana may be useful as a potential source of natural antioxidants.


The Kobylewskil and Eckhert study rises new safety concerns about rebiana from stevia [328]

Kobylewskil and Eckhert 2008, in a study prepared for the CSPI, concluded that the FDA should ensure that the genetic toxicity studies that produced either positive or conflicting results be repeated. The authors added that studies that look at potential DNA adducts related to the potential reactive metabolites (C-13 carbonium ion or the epoxide) of steviol would be a strong addition to the genotoxicity data. Finally, the FDA should require carcinogenicity and toxicology studies in rats and in mice before accepting rebaudioside A as a GRAS substance or approving it as a food additive.

The toxicologists emphasized the need for more genotoxicity tests, because of the evidence that derivatives of stevia that are closely related to rebiana damage DNA and chromosomes.

Coca-Cola and Pepsi are planning to introduce new drinks made with rebiana, an extract of stevia leaves that is 200 times sweeter than sugar. But according to the study of Kobylewskil and Eckhert, several, though not all, laboratory tests show that the sweetener causes mutations and DNA damage, which raises the prospect that it causes cancer. The CSPI asks the FDA for additional tests before accepting rebiana as Generally Regarded as Safe, or GRAS.
Rebiana is shorthand for rebaudioside A, a component of stevia. It is obtained from the leaves of a shrub native to Brazil and Paraguay. [329]

Stevia is legal in foods in Japan and several other countries, but the United States, Canada, and the European Union bar stevia in foods because of older tests that suggested it might interfere with reproduction. New tests sponsored by Cargill did not find such problems. [329]

Rebiana sweetener in USA accepted by FDA [330]

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded in a notification in December 2008, that it has no objection to rebiana, (Reb A) at 95 percent purity or above, having GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status as a general purpose sweetener for food and drink, not just as a supplement. This decision followed the application of Coca-Cola partnered with Cargill under their brand called Truvia, and PepsiCo under the PureVia brand. Applications for dairy, bakery and confectionary products, including boiled sweets and chewing gum are expected to follow.

PureCircle, a Malaysian company, which will supply rebiana, (Reb A) at 95 percent purity ingredient to PepsiC, Coca-Cola and Cargil. China is the world's largest exporter of stevioside. [331]

Rebiana had been banned until December 2008 [332]

In 1999, last revised in 2004, FDA stated: "Another product, stevia, is derived from a South American shrub. Though it can impart a sweet taste to foods, it cannot be sold as a sweetener because FDA considers it an unapproved food additive."The safety of stevia has been questioned by published studies," says Martha Peiperl, a consumer safety officer in FDA's Office of Premarket Approval. "And no one has ever provided FDA with adequate evidence that the substance is safe." Under provisions of 1994 legislation, however, stevia can be sold as a "dietary supplement," though it cannot be promoted as a sweetener."

FDA Import Alert last revised 24/4/2008 considered stevia leaves, and food containing stevia as unsafe food additive. [333]

CSPI says it is too soon to allow stevia in the diet sodas and juice drinks [334]

In a Statement of the CSPI, the Executive Director Michael F. Jacobson berates the FDA for declaring a sweetener extracted from the herb Stevia, is "generally recognized as safe," or GRAS. CSPI argues that rebaudioside A is inadequately tested in terms of cancer and caused mutations in some laboratory tests.

Rebiana still banned in the EU and other countries [335]

Rebiana is still banned in the European Union, in Singapore and Hong Kong [336]. Stevioside is isolated and purified from Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni leaves. The leaves naturally contain a complex mixture of eight sweet diterpene glycosides, including stevioside, steviolbioside, rebaudiosides (A,B,C,D,E) and dulcoside A. However, for the majority of toxicological studies, a precise composition of the extract that has been tested has not been adequately defined. In particular, studies on preparations of stevioside of higher than 95% purity are limited in number.

The data of the WHO 2006 [337]

Data compiled in the safety evaluation released by the World Health Organization in 2006 suggest that EU and Hong Kong policies may be obsolete.

Acute renal failure induced by steviol, breakdown product of stevioside [338]

Toskulkao and colleagues 1997 investigated the acute toxicity of stevioside and steviol (a product of enzymatic hydrolysis of stevioside). Stevioside and steviol at a dose as high as 15 g/kg BW was not lethal to mice and rats.

Hamsters did not die with Stevioside doses as high as 15 g/kg BW, however, their LD50 values of steviol were 5.20 and 6.10 g/kg BW for males and females, respectively. Severe degeneration of the proximal tubular cells of hamster kidneys, with acute renal failure induced by steviol were noted by the authors.

Stevioside and steviol are not mutagenic but toxic at high concentration [339]

Klongpanichpak and colleague 1997 found that stevioside and steviol showed no mutagenic effect on both tester Salmonella typhimurium TA 98 and TA 100 strains either in the presence or absence of metabolic activating system. The authors stress, however, that high concentration of stevioside and steviol showed some toxic which decreased in the presence of the metabolic activating system.

No genetic risc from stevioside and steviol [340]

According to Brusik 2008 the mutagenic activity of steviol and some of its derivatives, exhibited in strain TM677, related by some authors, was not reproduced in the same bacteria having normal DNA repair processes. Neither stevioside nor stevio-induced clastogenic effects at extremely high dose levels in vivo were found. The author concludes that neither stevioside nor steviol do not pose a risk of genetic damage following human consumption.

Stability of stevioside and rebaudioside A in carbonated acidic beverages [341] [341]

Chang and Cook 1983, observing the stability of pure stevioside and rebaudioside A in carbonated phosphoric and citric acidified beverages during long-term storage, reported some degradation of both sweeteners after 2 months of storage at 370C, but no significant changes at room temperature or below following 5 months of storage of stevioside, or 3 months of storage of rebaudioside A. Exposure to 1 week of sunlight did not affect stevioside but resulted in approximately 20% loss of rebaudioside A. Heating at 60 0C for 6 days resulted in 0-6% loss of the sweeteners.

Degradation of stevioside and rebaudioside A is acid-promoted, not by sunlight [342]

Clos, DuBois and Prakash 2008, working for Coca-Cola Company and Cargill, performed stability tests with Rebiana, traded as Truvia, the common name of rebaudioside A. They reported no significant photodegradation in acidic beverages exposed to light, containing rebaudioside A or steviosid. Degradation of the sweeteners were acid-promoted.

The authors challenge the Chang and Cook 1983 article which had suggested that rebaudioside A is unstable to sunlight exposure, while the structurally homologous stevioside is stable, however found rebaudioside and stevioside light stable, and degradation of the sweeteners were acid-promoted.

The position of the European Union [335]

The European Commission in an opinion on Stevia Rebaudiana Bertoni plants and leaves from 1999, responding to a request for authorisation to market as a novel food for the plants and dried leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni concluded that there are no satisfactory data to support the safe use of these products as ingredients of food or as sucrose substitute for diabetics and obese individuals. No appropriate data were presented to enable the safety of the commercial plant product to be evaluated. Stevia was therefore banned in the EU.

Glycemic index

The glycemic index (GI) is a ranking of carbohydrates on a scale from 0 to 100 according to the extent to which they raise blood sugar levels after eating. Foods with a high GI are those which are rapidly digested and absorbed and result in marked fluctuations in blood sugar levels. Low-GI foods, by virtue of their slow digestion and absorption, produce gradual rises in blood sugar and insulin levels. [343]

Low GI carbohydrates, producing small fluctuations in our blood glucose and insulin levels, reduces the risk of heart disease and diabetes and helps to control weight.
According to the Glycemic Index low GI foods are breakfast cereals based on oats, barleyand bran, breads with wholegrains, stone-ground flour, sour dough all other types of fruit and vegetables except potatoes, Basmati or Doongara rice, pasta, noodles, quinoa, salad vegetables with a vinaigrette dressing Foods containing little or no carbohydrate (such as meat, fish, eggs, avocado, wine, beer, spirits, most vegetables) cannot have a GI value. If the food has no carbohydrates, it has no GI. [343]


Labelling of Glycemic Index

Some foods on the Australian market already show their GI rating on the nutrition information panel. Terms such as complex carbohydrates and sugars, which commonly appear on food labels, are now recognised as having little nutritional or physiological significance. The WHO/FAO recommend that these terms be removed and replaced with the total carbohydrate content of the food and its GI value. [343]


Glycemic Index Databank

The Human Nutrition Unit at the University of Sydney hosts the GI Databank and tests foods on its Glycemic index. The Databank can be accessed at the Glycemic Index.com homepage. [343]


International Table of Glycemic Index

Jennie Brand Miller is the senior author of International The International Tables of Glycemic Index published by the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition in 1995 and 2002.
The GI has proven to be a more useful nutritional concept than is the chemical classification of carbohydrate (as simple or complex, as sugars or starches, or as available or unavailable), permitting new insights into the relation between the physiologic effects of carbohydrate-rich foods and health. Two similar foods may have different ingredients or may have been processed with a different method, resulting in significant differences in the rate of carbohydrate digestion and hence the GI value. [344]


Glycemic load

The glycemic load of a food is determined by multiplying its glycemic index by its available carbohydrate content per serving. [345]

Glycemic index reducing risk of cardiovascular diseases and obesity [346]

A randomized, controlled trial conducted by Prof Jennie Brand-Miller, Joanna McMillan-Price and colleagues from the University of Sydney compared the effects on weight loss and cardiovascular risk of low-glycemic index (GI) and high-protein diets. Four diets of varying GL on weight loss and reducing cardiovascular disease risk in young overweight or obese adults.
Brand Miller and colleagues concluded that both high-protein and low-GI regimens increase body fat loss, but cardiovascular risk reduction is optimized by a high-carbohydrate, low-GI diet. The researchers conclude further that dietary glycemic load and not just overall energy intake, influences weight loss and postprandial glycemia. Diets based on low GI wholegrain products maximise cardiovascular risk reduction, particular if protein intake is high.

Peter Clifton, however disagrees with the conclusions of the study of Brand-Miller and colleagues. [347]

Reduction of Glycemic Load

Reducing glycemic load may be especially important to achieve weight loss among individuals with high insulin secretion. Regardless of insulin secretion, a low-glycemic load diet has beneficial effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations but not on low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration. [348]

Glycemic index and pregnancy

Robert G Moses and colleagues compared the effects of low-GI and conventional dietary strategies on pregnancy outcomes in healthy women. Glycemic index may be of particular relevance during pregnacy because maternal glucose is the main energy substrate for intrauterine growth. The authors found that birth weight and ponderal index may predict chronic disease in later life. A low-GI diet may, therefore, favourably influence long-term outcomes. [349]

High Glycemic Index may lead to high oxidative stress

According to Hu and colleagues 2006 acute hyperglycemia may increase in vivo free radical production increasing the risk of many diseases. Chronic consumption of high-GI foods may lead to chronically high oxidative stress. A low-GI diet, not a low-carbohydrate diet, appears to be beneficial in reducing oxidative stress. [350]

Carbohydrates and obesity

According to Glenn Gaesser, diets high in carbohydrates are almost universally associated with slimmer bodies. They found that consuming high levels of high-glycemic foods is not associated with higher body weights. 0n this contest, Several large studies in the United States revealed that high-glycemic diets were linked to better weight control. With few exceptions, high glycemic load is associated with lower BMI.

Carbohydrates had been labelled as "good" for low, or "bad" for high glycemic index (GI), a measure of how much it raises blood sugar. High GI foods are such as white bread, white rice, breakfast cereals and concentrated sugar. Low GI foods include most vegetables, fruits, beans and unprocessed grains.

Low GI foods help to reduce the risk of diabetes and related conditions. The author, however, found that the relationship between carbohydrate intake and body mass index (BMI) is controversial.

Definition related to Glycemic Index used in labelling and claims

The Glycemic (Net) Carbohydrate Definition Committee of the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) International has approved definitions related to glycemic carbohydrates such as: Available carbohydrate, Glycemic response, Glycemic carbohydrate Glycemic impact The definitions may be found at http://www.aaccnet.org/news/06glycemicdefinitions.asp

However, Gaesser urges caution in the use of GI labels and claims, not before more research is done on this matter. He stresses that whole-grain intake is generally inversely associated with BMI, and refined grain intake is not. A low-fat dietary strategy, with carbohydrates rich on cereal fiber, may be beneficial for health and weight control.

High glycemic index foods are a universal mechanism for disease progression [351]

Alan W. Barclay and colleagues 2008 evaluated the association between Glycemic index (GI), glycemic load (GL) and chronic disease risk.

According to the authors high blood glucose leads to a higher risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease, gallbladder disease and some types of cancer, such as breast cancer. High blood glucose releases high amounts of insulin together with insulin like growth factor one (IGF-1). Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is an insulin similar hormone which plays an important role in childhood growth and anabolic effects in adults. The authors stresses that both hormones increase cell growth and decrease cell death, and increase the risk of developing cancer.

Low GI food diets like whole grain bread musli are being suggested instead of white bread, corn flakes high in sugar candies and cookies. The authors stress that higher postprandial glycemia is a universal mechanism for disease progression.

GI ranking [352] [353]

Classification GI range Examples
     
Low GI 55 or less most fruit and vegetables (except potatoes, watermelon
    and sweet corn), wholegrains, pasta, beans, lentils
     
Medium GI 56 - 69 sucrose, croissant, basmati rice, brown rice
     
High GI 70 or more corn flakes, baked potato, some white rices (e.g. jasmine),
    white bread, candy bar

Encapsulation of flavours

Beta-cyclodextrin has become a viable flavour carrier and protectant for food applications. Embuscado and Gottneid studied encapsulation of flavour. In their researches orange oil was encapsulated as a model flavour via spray-drying using beta-cyclodextrin, gum arabic and a starch n-octenylsuccinate with a starch hydrolyzate. They compared it with orange oil which had been adsorbed respectively to lactose and a starch hydrolyzate.at room temperature and at 45 C for up to 12 months. While the absorbed oil oxidized rapidly, while , the rate of degradation was reduced to different extents by encapsulation with the starch octenylsuccinate and gum arabic. Beta-cyclodextrin provided outstanding protection to the orange oil. [354]

Interactions of Milk Proteins and Volatile Flavour Compounds [355]

Low-fat/low-sugar food market poses flavouring challenges. Protein or carbohydrates take the place of fat but, according to Janina Kühn many proteins are able to bind several flavour compounds tightly and influence the perceived aroma profile significantly.

Instead of focusing on model systems using one protein and one aroma compound in a solution, Kühn calls for research on complex systems of several food matrix components and flavour mixtures and their physicochemical interaction.

Kühn suggests the use of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) as fast, solvent-free, and very sensitive techniques to study binding mechanisms and binding topology.

The review is focused on the binding of volatile flavour compounds by milk proteins in aqueous solutions.

Sugar beet pectine as wall material for microencapsulation of oil [356]

Sugar beet pectin and glucose syrup is being proposed by Dr. Stephan Drusch as an alternative to milk proteins and gum Arabic for the spray-drying technique of microencapsulation of lipophilic functional food ingredients, like omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Emulsions up to 50 per cent oil and 2.2 per cent sugar beet pectin with median oil droplet sizes less than two micrometres, however, there may be a maximum limit on the amount of oil that can be encapsulated.

Microencapsulation efficiency is being controlled by physicochemical parameters like particle morphology, particle size and extractable fat, and tests on the oxidative stability of the microcapsules over time as well as flavour retention for aroma compounds are going on.

Peanut butter [357]

Peanut butter contains a minimum of 90% peanuts, with no artificial sweeteners, colors or preservatives. Some brands add about 7% natural sweeteners and 1% salt for taste, plus a stabilizer to keep the peanut butter fresh and the oil from separating. "Old-fashioned" or "natural" peanut butter does not have the stabilizer so the oil will separate and should be stirred back in before using. Regular peanut butter contain less than 1% partially hydrogenated oil, avoiding oil from separating out of the peanut butter and increases the shelf life of the peanut butter. The amount of trans fat in regular peanut butter is less than 1%.

Under the proposed FDA labeling guidelines for trans fats, the peanut butter labels will list 0 trans fats. However, natural peanut butters do not contain partially hydrogenated oils. Oil separates, simply stir it back in before using. For that, natural peanut butter mixer were developed. [358]

"Peanut butter spreads", contain only 60% peanuts, but are nutritionally equivalent to peanut butter (although they may contain more sugar or salt). But today there also are real peanut butters on the market which are 25% reduced-fat and still contain at least 90% peanuts. [357]

Peanut butter and diabetes 2 [359]

Examining the relationship between nut consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes Jiang and colleagues found in a Prospective cohort study of women that nut consumption was inversely associated with risk of type 2 diabetes.

The authors suggest potential benefits of higher nut and peanut butter consumption in lowering risk of type 2 diabetes in women. To avoid increasing caloric intake, regular nut consumption can be recommended as a replacement for consumption of refined grain products or red or processed meats.

Glucosinolate from broccoli and reduction of cancer risk [360]

According to several studies related to biological activities of broccoli claim that isothiocyanates and indoles, released from glucosinolates by the enzyme myrosinase reduce the risk of cancer. The glucosinolates are a class of organic compounds that contain sulfur and nitrogen and are derived from glucose and an amino acid.

Many studies found that broccoli is rich on glucosinolates and other bioactive phytochemicals such as flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acid esters, carotenoids, folates and vitamin C. Interactions amongst these compounds may result in cancer protection and alter their biological effect. Cooking is also likely to affect bioactivity.

Because the use of glucosinolate-containing crops as primary food source for animals was shown to have negative effects, food crops have been developed that contain very low amounts of glucosinolates (e.g double zero canola variety). Extracts of plants high in glucosinolates can serve as natural pesticides. Low contents of glucosinolates were found to have health benefits.

Effect of cooking improves the cancer protecting effect of bloccoli [361]

Glucosinolate, their degradation products and other phytochemicals with biological activity may contribute to health benefits of crucifer vegetables such as broccoli. The authors studied the effects of extracts of broccoli derived from broccoli that had been heat treated to different extents on Caco-2 cancer cells exposed to glucosinolates and their degradation products after microwave cooking. The authors found that thermal degradation products increased the protecting effect of broccoli on account of the degradation products formed during the cooking process.

Isothiocianate from broccoli is inhibith Helicobacter pylori and blocks gastric tumor [362]

Fahey and colleagues 2002 found that sulforaphane ((-)-1-isothiocyanato-(4R)-(methylsulfinyl)butane), an isothiocyanate abundant as its glucosinolate precursor in certain varieties of broccoli and broccoli sprouts, is a potent bacteriostatic agent against stomach infectious with Helicobacter pylori. Sulforaphane was also found to block benzo[a]pyrene-evoked forestomach tumors in mice. The authors concluded that sulforaphane inhibiting Helicobacter infections and blocking gastric tumor formation act synergistically and provide a diet-based protection against gastric cancer in humans.

Increase intake of variety of plant components to fight prostate cancer [363]

John Erdman and colleagues found in a study on implanted Dunning R3327-H prostate tumours in rats that the combination of tomato and broccoli was more effective at slowing tumour growth that either tomato or broccoli alone.

The authors believe that different bioactive compounds, such as lycopene in tomatoes and glucosinolates in broccoli in each food work on different anti-cancer pathways the public health. This supports the older recommendations to increase the intake of a variety of plant components. The authors call for future human prevention trials based on dietary interventions and highlight that it is very doable for a man to eat a cup and a half of broccoli per day or put broccoli on a pizza with half a cup of tomato concentrate.

Based on this study, Erdman concludes that tomatoes are better than lycopene supplement, and that chopping and heating makes the cancer-fighting constituents of tomatoes and broccoli more bioavailable. Cooked tomatoes had been found healthier than fresh ones.

Sulforaphane, the powerful cancer-fighting agent in broccoli [364]

Sulforaphane is a chemopreventive phytochemical. It is found in broccoli and to a lesser extent in other cruciferous vegetables.

Sulforaphane can be released from its parent compound glucoraphanin by bacteria in the lower gut and absorbed into the body. This increases broccoli's cancer-preventive power according to a study of Jeffery, Miller and Lai 2010. Overcooking broccoli destroys the plant enzyme which turn sulforaphane free. In this study the authors demonstrated that microbiota in our digestive tract can turn glucoraphanin into sulforaphane. Three to five servings a week is enough to have an anti-cancer effect.

Sulforaphane also has anti-inflammatory properties, responsible to chronic diseases associated with obesity and ageing.

To boost heath effects of broccoli the authors suggest to feed the desirable bacteria with prebiotics like fiber, or combine broccoli with a yogurt sauce that contains the hydrolyzing bacteria.

Inflamatory pathway NF-kappaB [365]

Prasad and colleagues 20101 stress that lifestyle risk factors such as tobacco, alcohol, high-fat diet, radiation, and infections increase risk of cancer. Lifestyle risk factors have been found to activate NF- kappaB and NF- kappaB-regulated genes, mediating inflammation and tumor cells.

Diet consisting of fruits and vegetables spices and nuts, rich in flavones, flavanones, flavonols, isoflavones, anthocyanins, and chalcones can prevent cancer can suppress the proinflammatory cell signaling pathways of cancer.

Neuroprotective activity of antioxidant nutraceuticals [366]

Natural neuroprotective antioxidant compounds directly scavenge free radicals or increase endogenous cellular antioxidant defenses, such as the nuclear factor erythroid-derived 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) transcription factor pathway, modulation of signal transduction cascades or effects on gene expression. Kelsey and colleagues 2010 cites such neuroprotective antioxidants.

According to Greco and Fiskum 2010 oxidative stress promotes Ca(2+)-dependent opening of the mitochondrial inner membrane permeability transition pore (PTP). This causes bioenergetic failure and subsequent cell death. To avoid such oxidative stress the activation of the Nrf2/ARE pathway of antioxidant gene expression by sulforaphane was found to confers resistance of brain mitochondria to redox-regulated PTP opening. [367]

Sharma and colleagues 2010 stresses the downregulation of Bcl-2, COX-2 and IL-1beta upon treatment with sulforaphane, explaining the anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-cancer activities od sulforaphane. [368]

Kalpana and colleagues 2010 found sulforaphane to be very successful in combating the oxidative stress mediated mitochondrial dysfunction in experimental lung carcinogenesis induced by benzo(a)pyrene. [369]

Bladder cancer induced by tobacco smoke [370]

A human bladder carcinogen present on tobacco smoke is 4-aminobiphenyl (ABP). Ding and colleagues 2010 demonstrated that sulforaphane inhibits ABP-induced DNA damage in bladder cells. Dings and colleagues 2010 write that sulforaphane activates NF-E2 related factor-2 (Nrf2), which is kown as a chemopreventive target and activates the Nrf2-regulated cytoprotective signaling pathway.

The authors also report that sulforaphane-enriched broccoli sprout extracts strongly inhibits N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine-induced bladder cancer development, supporting epidemiologic observation that consumption of broccoli is inversely associated with bladder cancer risk and mortality.

Chronic inflammation, a major mediator of tumor [371]

Gupta and colleagues 2010 write that as 35% of all cancers can be prevented by dietary changes. The study focuses on nutraceuticals, such as allicin, apigenin, berberine, butein, caffeic acid, capsaicin, catechin gallate, celastrol, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, fisetin, flavopiridol, gambogic acid, genistein, plumbagin, quercetin, resveratrol, sanguinarine, silibinin, sulforaphane, taxol, gamma-tocotrienol, and zerumbone, derived from spices, legumes, fruits, nuts, and vegetables. They reduce the risk of cancer modulating inflammatory pathways and thus affect the survival, proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis of the tumor.

The chemopreventive activity of broccoli may be higher than found by animal studies [372]

Abdull Razis and colleagues 2010 studied the ability of the stereoisomers R- and S-sulforaphane to modulate the cell enzyme systems. They found that R-sulforaphane elevated glutathione S-transferase (GST alpha, GST my) and quinone reductase in liver and in lung, in comparision S-sulforaphane presented lower effect or even no effect at all. The authors concluded that R-sulforaphane was the more active isomer of both. Animal studies using S-sulforaphane present results which are too low for human diet which provides mainly the high active R- racemic form.

Effect of broccoli and tomatoes Effect in humans remain still unclear

Dr Julie Sharp of Cancer Research UK commenting the study of Professor John Erdman said that both broccoli and tomatoes may contain chemicals with anticancer properties, their effects in humans, however, are still unclear in face of conflicting results from other studies with people using these vegetables.

The role of tomato products and lycopene in the prevention of prostate cancer [373]

Etminan and colleagues 2004 determined whether intake of tomato products reduces the risk of prostate cancer using a meta-analysis. The researchers concluded that tomato products may play a role in the prevention of prostate cancer. However, this effect is modest and restricted to high amounts of tomato intake.

Further research is needed to determine the type and quantity of tomato products with respect to their role in preventing prostate cancer.

Tomato powder reduce prostata cancer risk in animals [374]

Valeri Mossine and colleagues 2008 report that enhanced protective effect of tomatoes against prostate cancer comes by rehydrating tomato powder into tomato concentrate.

Rats which were fed with tomato concentrate plus FruHis, a complex carbohydrate developed 10 per cent prostate tumors, compared with 30 percent of animals receiving tomato powder alone, 25 percent receiving tomato concentrate alone and 60 percent in the control group.

The authors write that processing of edible plants (heating, grinding, mixing, drying, etc.) may have an effect on the nutritional value of the product, largely due to changes that occur in organic carbohydrates. The authors conclude that the interaction of FruHis carbohydrate and lycopene which develops during the dehydration process of tomato powder is responsible for the beneficial activity of tomato powder.

This study gives the tomato soups, prepared with powder from the bag, a new healthy anti-cancer image.

Lycopene may be beneficial treating benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) [375]

A possibly beneficial role of lycopene in patients diagnosed with benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH), who are at increased risk of developing prostata carcinome was assesed by Silke Schwarz and colleagues 2008 using 15 mg lycopene for 6 month.

The researchers found that lycopene decreased the level of serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels, the prostate did not enlarge in the lycopene group. Symptoms of the disease were significantly improved. he authors concluded that , lycopene inhibited progression of BPH.


The World Cancer Research Fund's (WCRF) study [376]

The report "Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer" is based on publications published since 1960.
Its core message is a group of 10 recommendations on how to prevent cancer:

Whole grains

Wholegrain cereals, roots, tubers, and plantains are recommended in the diet.
Consuming relative high amounts of vegetables, fruits, pulses (legumes), nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices were recommended.

Red and processed meat

Red and processed meat causes colorectal cancer up to 30 percent compared with low red meat eaters.The report suggests an average intake of no more than 300g each week of red meat. Fish is recommended to be included in diet. Egg consumption should be limited.

According to WCRF red meat contains haem, a substance derived from red blood cells which causes a reaction in the gut that converts the amino acid glycine into a toxic substance which can damage DNA and can give rise to mutations in genes which may ultimately be necessary for cancer to occur. [377]

Healthy diet should displace ham and bacon in lunchbox says World Cancer Research Fund relation to cancer [378]

The World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) stresses that processed meats such as ham and salami in the diet of children may increase their risk of developing cancer later in life. This advice is based on scientific evidence that eating processed meat, such as those preserved by smoking, curing, salting or by the addition of preservatives, increases bowel cancer risk. Eating less than 70 g of processed meat a week bowel cancer could drop by 3,700 cases. This includes ham, bacon, pastrami and salami, as well as hot dogs and some sausages. Hamburgers and minced meats only count as processed meat if they have been preserved with salt or chemical additives.

For the same reason WCRF also calls to limit red meat consumption to 500 g (cooked weight) per week. A healthy eating pattern from the time they start school should include poultry, fish, low-fat cheese, houmous or small amounts of lean meat, salad, fruits and vegetables.

The WCRF says that cancer is largely preventable and helps people make choices to reduce their chances of developing the disease. This includes research into how cancer risk is related to diet, physical activity, and weight management, and education programmes that highlight the fact that about a third of cancers could be prevented through changes to lifestyle.

Report Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer [379]

Report published by WCRF studies actual effects of food, nutrition, physical activity, and body composition on risk of cancer, and gives recommendations to reduce the incidence of diseases.

FSA ecommendations on processed meat [380]

The Food Standards Agency, commenting the recommendations of the WCRF agrees that some evidences link bowel cancer to red and processed meats, however, this does not mean that occasional ham sandwich in the lunchbox increases the risk. The FSA highlights the importance of a balanced diet with limited amount of foods high in fat, saturated fat, sugar and salt. According to the FSA, processed meats, such as ham and salami, can form part of a balanced diet, however these foods often contain high levels of fat, particularly saturated fat and salt. They should not be eaten too often.

Fat and trans-fatty acids

Total dietary fats and trans-fatty acids should be limited. Salt intake should be limited to no more than 5 to 6 g/day for adults. Intake of sugar should be limited.

Overweight

The body weight should be maintained as low as possible in order to avoid cancer.

Alcohol

The report provides evidences that alcohol may cause cancer.

Dietary supplements

Dietary supplements are not recommended for cancer prevention. Some studies suggest an increased risk of prostate cancer caused by high doses of calcium and zinc. Some findings suggest moderate protection from vitamin E for smokers, but there was no advantage found in non-smokers. Selenium may be protective. [381]

Special foods

Foods rich in folate such as tomatoes, broccoli, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts,may reduce the risk for cancer, and diets rich in calcium may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer.

Salt and sugar

Salt should be reduced to 5 or 6g/day for adults. Sugar schould be reduced as much as possible.

Water

Water should be chosen as a drink instead of fruit juices, soft drinks, and hot drinks to prevent overweight/obesity and dental damage. Individuals (particularly older people) should consume between 1.5 and 2 litres of water each day to prevent constipation.

Dairy

Low-fat dairy products should be chosen in preference to high-fat versions.

Prediction of drinking water needs [382]

The US is engaged in operations all over the world. Transporting water to troops accounts for about one-third of costs of war activities. To make these activities less expensive Cheuvront and colleagues 2009 from The Institute of Medicine (IOM) developed sweating rate prediction models that calculate hourly and daily water needs based on metabolic rate, clothing and environment. It improves the Shapiro equation, which often over-predicts fluid needs.

The Shapiro equation (OSE): OSE

It was developed by the US army in 1982. It is expressed as (msw (g ∗s;m-2 ∗s;h -1) = 27.9∗s; Ereq ∗s; (Emax)-0.455, where:
- Ereq is evaporative heat loss required to maintain proper body temperature
- Emax is the evaporative potential of the environment
- msw represents sweat loss
- g∗s; m-2 is grams of sweat multiplied by the body's surface area
- ∗s; = multiplied by

The new sweat equations

The authors published two new equations which are 58 and 65% more accurate with minimal error.

The corrected OSE

The corrected OSE is : (OSE,C): msw = 147∗s; exp (0.0012∗s; OSE)

The new equation PW

The new equation is: (PW): msw = 147+1.527∗s;(Ereq) - 0.87∗s; (Emax)

The authors stress that the two new equations provide for more accurate sweat predictions over a broader range of conditions with applications to public health, military, occupational and sports medicine settings.

Cheuvront and colleagues try to develop a public online application program calculating the sweat loss using individual variables such as height and weight, how hard and long they would be active, temperature, humidity, sunlight, wind and fitness levels.

Breastfeeding

Mothers are advised to breastfeed exclusively for six months and to continue with complementarybreastfeeding after that. As well as convincing evidence that this protects the mother against breast cancer, there is also probable evidence that it protects the child against obesity in later life. UK's Food and Drink Federation, commenting the report says that a balanced diet coupled with moderate amounts of exercise is the key to a healthy lifestyle.

The American Meat Institute (AMI) refers to conflicting research findings so that definitive conclusions and precise recommendations about specific foods should not be made. The World Cancer Researche Fund responds to this allegation saying that their study is base on sound evidences [377].


Food pyramids [383]

USDA Food Pyramid and MyPyramid

The U.S. Department of Agriculture created the Food Guide Pyramid and replaced it recently by a new version called MyPyramid. It should be based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. [384]

According to the Harvard School of Public Health the MyPyramid continues to recommend foods that aren't essential to good health, and may even be detrimental in the quantities included in MyPyramid. [383]


Dietary Guidelines, 2005 [385]

Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, according to the Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) is still being influenced by the food industry. The HSPH cites some points which being considered as not correct: [383].

- The guidelines suggest to consume half of grains as refined starch. HSPH consider this as not healthy, since refined starches behave like sugar.
- The guidelines do not distinguish between the different type of fat contained in red meat, poultry, fish, and beans (including soy products). It does not recommend to change red meat for a combination of fish, poultry, beans, and nuts, says HSPH.
- The recommendation to drink three glasses of low-fat milk or eat three servings of other dairy products per day would bring 300 calories per day encouraging obesity according to HSPH.

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 [386]

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans include recommendations for healthy eating and informations about nutrients and food components. The Guidelines are reviewed every 5 years. They contain advice for people 2 years and older about how good dietary habits can promote health and reduce risk for major chronic diseases.

The 2010 Dietary Guidelines released on January 2011 recommend to balance intake of calories with physical activity and consume more vegetables, fruits, low-fat dairy products, seafood., beans and peas, and nuts and seeds. Kitchen salt, solid fats, added sugars, and refined grains should be reduced. Advices to persons with chronic diseases due to the poor diet and physical inactivity resulting in overweight and obesity of the US population were included in the new version of the Guidelines.

Two new chapters were included in the new Guideline: "The Total Diet: Combining Nutrients, Consuming Food" and "Translating and Integrating the Evidence: A Call to Action." According to the Guidelines Poor diet and physical inactivity are the most important factors contributing to an epidemic of overweight and obesity. In USA 72 percent of men and 64 percent of women are overweight or obese [387]. Poor diet and physical inactivity are the major causes of morbidity and mortality.

Daily sodium intake in general population should be less than 2300 mg and less than 1500 mg for people older than50 years and those with hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease.

The Healthy Eating Pyramid [383]

It is founded on:
- Daily exercise and weight control.
- Whole Grain Foods (at most meals) such as oatmeal, whole-wheat bread, and brown rice.
- Plant oils such as olive, canola, soy, corn, sunflower, peanut, and other vegetable oils. However, fatty fish such as salmon are also welcome.
- Vegetables (in abundance) and Fruits (2 to 3 times).
- Fish, Poultry, and Eggs (0 to 2 times).
- Nuts and Legumes (1 to 3 times).
- Dairy or Calcium Supplement (1 to 2 times). If you don't like dairy products, calcium supplements may be the roght answer.
- Red Meat and Butter (Use Sparingly): Both contain lots of saturated fat. HSPH recommends to change red meat with fish or chicken, and butter with olive oil.
- White Rice, White Bread, Potatoes, White Pasta, Soda, and Sweets (Use Sparingly).
- Multiple Vitamin: HSPH recommends a daily multivitamine, multimineral supplement as a nutritional back-up.
- Alcohol (in moderation).

Modified MyPyramid for Older People [388]

Lichtenstein and colleagues 2008 presented My Modified Food Guide Pyramid for Older Adults based on their first issue of 1999. It is targets individuals aged 70 years and older, is intended to complement and not substitute MyPyramid graphic.

Core claims are whole grains and variety within the grains group; variety and nutrient density, with specific emphasis on different forms particularly suited to older adults' needs in the vegetables and fruits groups, fresh or frozen; low-fat and non-fat forms of dairy products including reduced lactose alternatives in the milk group; low saturated fat and trans fat choices in the oils group; and low saturated fat and vegetable choices in the meat and beans group, nutrient-and fibre-rich foods within each group and food sources of nutrients. The foundation of the pyramid for adults stresses good hydration with sufficient fluid intake. Regular physical activity which are appropriate to the age are illustrated. The potential need of calcium, and vitamins D and B-12 supplements is located at the top of the pyramid.

The potential overnutrition of older adults is a new concern highlighted in this study which considers the changes in body composition and metabolic rate of older people. See the MyPyramid fore Older People at http://images.medscape.com/pi/editorial/news/art-mmn567940.fig1.gif

USDA MyPyramid graphic and further informations

USDA MyPyramid graphic and detailed informations are found under: http://www.mypyramid.gov/
MyPyramid for Preschoolars: http://www.mypyramid.gov/preschoolers/index.html
MyPyramid for Kids (6-11yrs): http://www.mypyramid.gov/kids/index.html
MyPyramid for Pregnancy and Breatfeeding: http://www.mypyramid.gov/mypyramidmoms/index.html
MyPyramid for Professionals: http://www.mypyramid.gov/professionals/index.html

Dietary Guidelines

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005, gives science-based advice on food and physical activity choices for health. http://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/
The Dietary Guidelines describe a healthy diet as one that
- Emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products;
- Includes lean meats, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, and nuts; and
- Is low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt (sodium), and added sugars.

Alternative food pyramids

Oldways Preservation and Exchange Trust

The Asian, Latin, Mediterranean, and vegetarian pyramids are also good, evidence-based guides for healthy eating. [389]

Genetic dependence to nicotine [390]

Scientists from an EU-supported consortium have discovered that a mutation in a human gene confers nicotine dependence. They have shown that a particular variant of a nicotine-receptor gene impacts smoking behaviour and hence confers a 30% increase in risk of lung cancer and a 20% increase in risk of peripheral artery disease (PAD), a common and debilitating constriction of the arteries to the legs. Roughly half of the people of European descent carry at least one copy of this genetic variant, which does not influence smoking initiation, but makes it more difficult to quit. The results stem out from the European project GENADDICT (Genomics, mechanisms and treatment of addiction)

The mutation which contributes to nicotine addiction is located on chromosome 15q24 and affects one nicotine-acetylcholine receptor in the brain. A study of 11,000 Icelandic smokers participating in the research showed that the mutation is more common in heavier smokers than in smokers overall and in the general population. It was also correlated with likelihood of clinical diagnosis of nicotine dependence.

Comparisons between current and past smokers showed that people carrying this variant tend to smoke more and are less likely to quit smoking. Interestingly, the variant is less common among smokers who smoked less than 10 cigarettes per day than it is among non-smokers, supporting the notion that the mutation does not influence smoking initiation, but rather confers risk of nicotine dependence among those who start.

Through understanding the genetics of addiction the GENADDICT research may give new insight into its biological basis, and into the dysfunction of the addicted brain. It is likely to boost the development of new treatments and strategies against this serious disease.

Nicotine dependence

Recent articles report that genetic mutations on chromosomes 8, 15 and 19 make addiction to smoke more critical, and they are more prone to lung cancer compared to persons without this mutation. Also chromosome 11 is known to intensify the addiction, but chromosome 9 contains a gene which make it less difficult to stop smoking.

The researchers say that some genes are responsible for the synthesis of enzymes which may be active in metabolising nicotine. Nicotine activates the nicotine receptors in the brain which releases the "feel good" hormones dopamine and serotonine.

Genes associated with smoking behaviour [391]

The Tobacco and Genetics Consortium together with the European Network of Genetic and Genomic Epidemiology and the Oxford-GlaxoSmithKline identified three loci associated with number of cigarettes smoked per day. These loci were the 15q25 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the nicotinic receptor gene CHRNA3, two 10q25 SNPs, and one 9q13 SNP in EGLN2. Other genes were found which facilitate smoking initiation, and other genes which are. The good news are that one loci located on chromosome 9 was significantly associated with smoking cessation.

Smoking behaviour and genetics [392]

Thorgeirsson and colleagues report that variants in the genomic regions at 15q25, 19q13, 8p11, and rs6474412-T are related to number of cigarettes smoked per day. Two loci are genes encoding nicotine-metabolizing enzymes (CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits (CHRNB3 and CHRNA6), already known to be related to smoking and nicotine dependence. The genes at 8p11 and 19q13 are linked with lung cancer

Gene locus on 15q25 associated with smoking quantity [393]

Liu and colleagues 2010 confirmed an effect on smoking quantity at a locus on 15q25 that includes CHRNA5, CHRNA3 and CHRNB4, three genes encoding neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits.

Genetics as culprit to failure to quit smoking? [394]

Chapman and MacKenzie 2010 argue that the volume of research and effort devoted to professionally and pharmacologically mediated cessation is in inverse proportion to that examining how most ex-smokers actually quit.

The authors say that final results of nicotine replacement therapy or other drugs is dramatically overestimated. Many of these studies are funded by pharmaceutical companies.

Up to three-quarters of ex-smokers have quit without assistance, and unaided cessation is by far the most common method used by most successful ex-smokers. Recidivism is normal if efforts are not serious attempts. The increasing medicalisation of smoking cessation implies professionally mediation. The author call on health authorities emphasise the positive message that the most successful method used by most ex-smokers is unassisted cessation. Nicotine replacement therapy may help, but is not used in most cases of successful cessations.

Small hint to quit smoking

The most stringent factor needed to stop smoking is a strong will to do it. The first 4 days of cessation are difficult. You have to avoid any trouble. Take a vacation or some days off for the start. You will feel sick and nervous. Remember that after this period you will feel better each day. You will be proud of your mental strength and you will be able to handle other weaknesses much easier. Do not blame genetics. Pharmaceutical companies, like Oxford-GlaxoSmithKline, pose to much emphasis on studies related to nicotine replacement and genetics. It is your strength which you have to rely on.

Maternal smoking or even using nicotine patches or gum causes long-term cardiovascular harm for the child [395]

Xiao at al. 2011 reported that nicotine given to rats during pregnancy cause anomalous vascular reactivity and increased blood pressure in adult male rat offspring compared with rat population fed without nicotine.

Nicotine causes the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), in the walls of blood vessels in the foetus. ROS cause permanent changes in the behaviour the blood vessel. This faulty programming is then carried throughout the individual's life and may lead to high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases.

In a commentary accompanying this paper, Lim and Sobeyn say that if applicable to humans a new cardiovascular risk factor which is predefined before birth. The authors also stress that nicotine replacement therapy results in nicotine crossing the placenta causing a foetal programming of vascular oxidative stress in the offspring with vascular dysfunction mediated by reactive oxygen species in association with decreased superoxide dismutase activity and increased Nox2-NADPH oxidase expression in the vascular wall in adulthood. [396]

Nicotine replacement therapy is considered to be a safer alternative for women to smoking during pregnancy. Bruin, Gerstein and Holloway in a review of 2010 stress that according to studies on animals, there are long-term effects associated with maternal cigarette smoking on the offspring, such as impaired fertility, type 2 diabetes, obesity, hypertension, neurobehavioural defects, and respiratory dysfunction.[397]

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