Subsections
Global corporations
According to Peter Dicken (University of Manchester,
UK), most writers on globalization project a highly simplistic
conceptualization of the firm that spans the ideological spectrum: from the
hyper-globalist of the populist business literature to the anti-globalization
movements:
: One of the center claims of hyper-globalists
in business is that international firms are inexorably and inevitably abandoning
their ties to their country of origin and converge towards a universal global
organizational form[2550].
Kenichi Ohmaes exhortation (1990:94) to business
manager is usually invoked as the exemplar of such a position:
"Country of origin does not matter. Location of headquarters does not matter.
The products for which you are responsible and the company you serve have
become denationalised." Some of these ideas were existent before Ohmae, such
as the US Under-Secretary of State, George Ball in 1967 coined the liable "
Cosmocorp", describing what he saw as the emerging global corporation. Barned
and Muller (1974) gave examples of US corporate executives to transform
their forms to placeless global corporations.
Other quite bizarre ideas are that technological and regulatory developments
in the world economy have created a "global surface"on which a dominant
organizational form will develop and inexorably wipe out less efficient
competitors who are no longer protected by national or local barriers. Such an
organization is "placeless" and "boundry-less".
This claims that the placeless corporation is becoming the norm amongst
international firms received a substantial boost in the 1990s with the
persistence of the Japanese financial crisis and the unexpected East Asian
financial crisis of 1997-1998.
model of the global corporation. The US-style
corporation was projected as being the most effective way of maximizing
shareholder value. All other models of business organization were not less
efficient but would be vanquished.
The collapse of Enron, WorldCom and other high profile US companies in 2002
seriously threw into doubt both the efficiency and incorruptibility of the
US corporate model.
According to global executives and managers, the suggestion that
multinationals were "national companies with units abroad" was roundly
rejected as old fashioned and not compatible with the demands of the
contemporary global economy. Most of them considered their corporations to be
in a transitional state between the multinational corporation and the global corporation.
: These groups like to compare TNCs
(transnational corporations) with nation-states in order to demonstrate that
TNCs have become more powerful than states. The Institute for Policy Studies
in the US published Anderson and Cavanagh (2000:3) stating:
Of the 100 large economics in the world, 51 are corporations and only 49 are
countries (based on a comparison of corporate sales and country GPDs).
General Motors is now bigger than Denmark, DaimlerChrysleri is bigger than
Poland. Royal Dutch/Shell is bigger than Pakistan. The 1999 sales of each of
the top five corporation (General Motors, Wal-Mart, Exxon Mobil, Ford Motor
and DaimlerChrysler are bigger than the GDPs of 182 countries).
These figures do not tell us much about the gobalness of corporations or even
the extent to which corporations are more or less oriented to domestic or
foreign operations.
Analyzing all data Peter Dicken comes to the conclusion that contrary to many
sayings, place and geography still matter fundamentally in the way in which
firms are produced and in how they behave. The basic point of Dickens is that
firms - including TNCs are produced through an intricate process of embedding
in which the cognitive, cultural, social, political and economic
characteristics of the national home base play a dominant part.
: Despite the unquestioned geographical
transformations of the world economy, driven at least in part by the
expansionary activities of transnational corporations, the convergence to a
single "placeless" type did not take place yet. This is because, over time,
and under specific circumstances, societies have tended to develop distinctive
ways of organizing their economies, even within the broad, apparently unitary,
ideology of capitalism
Not all capitalisms are the same and come in many different varieties. Forms
of economic coordination and governance cannot easily be transferred from one
society to another for they are embedded in social systems of production
distinctive to their particular society.
Economic performance is shaped by the entire social system of production in
which firms are embedded and not simply by specific principles of management
styles and work practices.
Dickens says that the differences of firms from different geographical
context have enormous implications for economic development policy at
national, regional and local levels. He calls for meticulous comparative
international analysis of firm-place relationship. Transnational corporations are
not placeless; "global" corporations are, indeed, a myth.
The three most important instruments of economic power are the World Trade
Organization (WTO), the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
World Trade Organization ( WTO )
Established in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO),
located in Geneva, Zwitzerland, enforces a dozen separate trade agreements and
serves as a forum for ongoing talks to develop new trade agreements. The WTO
is the product of the Uruguay Round (1986-1994) of
negotiations. Today, the WTO has 146 members.
It includes specific commitments by WTO member governments to improve market
access and reduce trade-distorting subsidies in agriculture. These commitments
are being implemented over a six year period (10 years for developing
countries) that began in 1995. Participants have agreed to initiate
negotiations for continuing the reform process one year before the end of the
implementation period, i.e. by the end of 1999.
These talks have now been incorporated intothe broader negotiating agenda set
at the 2001 Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar Environmentally speaking, the most important new topics
under negotiation in the WTO are investment and services. Its Budget for 2003
was 154 million Swiss francs.
- Administering WTO trade agreements
- Forum for trade negotiations
- Handling trade disputes
- Monitoring national trade policies
- Technical assistance and training for developing countries
- Cooperation with other international organizations
The WTO's Agriculture Agreement wants to promote fairer competition, improving
market access and reducing trade-distorting subsidies in agriculture. These
commitments are being implemented over a six year period (10 years for
developing countries) that began in 1995. Participating governments have
agreed to initiate negotiations for continuing the reform process one year
before the end of the implementation period, i.e. by the end of 1999. These
talks have now been incorporated into the broader negotiating agenda set at the 2001.
The Doha Declaration:
The declaration
reconfirms the long-term objective to establish a fair and market-oriented
trading system through a program of fundamental reform. The program
encompasses strengthened rules, and specific commitments on government support
and protection for agriculture. The purpose is to correct and prevent
restrictions and distortions in world agricultural markets.
Without prejudging the outcome, member governments commit themselves to
comprehensive negotiations aimed at market access and export subsidies that
distort trade. The declaration makes special and differential treatment for
developing countries integral throughout the negotiations, and should enable
developing countries meet their needs, in particular in food security and
rural development.
The non-trade concerns, such as environmental protection, food security and
rural development will be considered in the Agriculture Agreement.
[2552]
The Peace Clause was introduced at the eleventh hour
during the Uruguay Round as a "take-it-or-leave-it" condition for signing a
deal. After protecting illegal subsidies for nine years, that Peace Clause
elapsed in 2003. While the details of a new Peace Clause are not known it is
almost certain that it would block developingcountries from taking a raft of
new cases to the WTO.
The US said last week that it needs the Peace Clause to be renewed to protect itself from litigation while it is in the process of reducing its trade-distorting subsidies. But Charveriat said that members of the WTO should make a stand.
The US and EU currently pay at least $13bn worth of illegal subsidies for agriculture. If the Peace Clause were reintroduced, no poor country would be able to take them to the WTO court for this, for possibly up to 10 years.
Suspension of the Doha negotiations
[2885]
The General Council, at its meeting on 27-28 July 2006, supported a recommendation by Director-General Pascal Lamy to suspend the Doha negotiations. The Task Force on Aid for Trade submitted its report and recommendations aimed at helping developing countries increase exports of goods and services.
According to FAO, the Doha Round of international trade negotiations collapsed
mainly because of
a fight for advantage in agricultural markets by large and powerful countries, corporations and lobbies. [2886]
The approach adopted in the talks was flawed from the outset, FAO said. It failed
to take sufficient account of the interests of developing countries and focussed
on "free trade, rather than fair trade."
The emerging financial markets in China and India force western countries to look
after counterweights. A free trade zone between Europe, USA and Canada would
bring together financial markets with similar social structures. In case of a
total failure of the WTO, Germany's Chancellor Angela Merkel will try to
relaunch a 1998 plan for a transatlantic free trade zone when it takes up the
rotating EU presidency in January 2007.
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures ( SPS )
Sanitary and phytosanitary of WTO wants to ensure that every consumers are being
supplied with food that is safe to eat, and at the same time, to ensure that
strict health and safety regulations are not being used as an excuse for
protecting domestic producers. An agreement on how governments can apply food
safety and animal and plant health measures (sanitary and phytosanitary or SPS
measures) sets out the basic rules in the WTO.
Standards and Trade Development Facility
(STDF)
The Standards
and Trade Development Facility (STDF) is a global program in capacity building
and technical assistance to developing countries in trade and standards. The
Facility builds upon a Head of Agency communiqué issued by the World Bank, the
World Animal Health Organization (OIE), World Trade Organization (WTO), World
Health Organization (WHO), and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) at the
Doha Ministerial of the WTO in 2001. Funding is initially provided through the
World Bank's Development Grant Facility, along with support from the Doha
Development Trust Fund of the WTO.
The activities of STDF relate specifically to food safety, plant, and animal
health, and to the standards developed by the FAO/WHO Joint Codex Alimentarius
Commission (Codex), the FAO International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), and the OIE.
WTO is important and can turn out to be a good partner of the United Nations
as soon initial errors are amended. Learning from errors of the past, global
control can be improved using feedback from NGOs ( Non-Governmental Organizations.)
WTO, The World Trade Organization:
The WTO is the only global international organization dealing
with the rules of trade between nation. The goal is to help producers of goods
and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
It is located in Geneva, Switzerland. It had been preceded by GATT (General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) since 1948 and was established on 1 January 1995 by the Uruguay Round
negotiations (1986-94). A second WTO
ministerial meeting was held in Geneva in May 1998. 146 countries are members of the WTO.
GATT had mainly dealt with trade in goods. WTO and its agreements now cover trade
in services, and in traded inventions, creations and designs (intellectual
property) TRIPS.
Functions of the WTO
The WTO shall facilitate the implementation, administration and operation, and
further the objectives, of
- TRIPS
- Multilateral Trade Agreements
- Plurilateral Trade Agreements
The WTO provides the forum for negotiations among its Members concerning their multilateral trade relations in matters dealt with under the agreements in the Annexes to this Agreement.
The WTO administers the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).
The WTO cooperates with the International Monetary Fund and with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) deals with the rules of trade between nations at a global or near-global level.
These agreements are often called the WTO's trade rules. These rules are actually agreements that governments negotiated. These agreements and annexes deal with the following specific sectors or issues:
For goods (under GATT)
- Agriculture
- Health regulations for farm products (SPS)
- Textiles and clothing
- Product standards (TBT)
- Investment measures
- Anti-dumping measures
- Customs valuation methods
- Preshipment inspection
- Rules of origin
- Import licensing
- Subsidies and counter-measures
- Safeguards
For services (the GATS annexes)
- Movement of natural persons
- Air transport
- Financial services
- Shipping
- Telecommunications
The WTO agreements are negotiated
and signed by the bulk of the world's trading nations. These documents provide the legal
ground-rules for international commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding
governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits.
Handling trade disputes:
The
most harmonious way to settle these differences is through some neutral procedure based on an agreed legal foundation. That is the purpose behind the dispute settlement process written into the WTO agreements.
The Doha Development Agenda
: The
bulk of the WTO's current work comes from the 1986-94 negotiations called the Uruguay Round and earlier negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO is currently the host to new negotiations, under the "Doha Development Agenda" launched in 2001.
The Ministerial Conference is composed of representatives of all the Members. The Ministerial Conference carries out the functions of the WTO and take actions necessary to this effect. The Ministerial Conference has the authority to take decisions on all matters under any of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, if so requested by a Member. It meets every two years.
The General Council is composed of representatives of all the Members. It
conducts the functions of the Ministerial Conference during the intervals
between meetings of the Ministerial Conference.
The WTO continues decision-making followed the
agreements of GATT 1947. At meetings of the Ministerial Conference and the
General Council, each Member of the WTO has one vote. The European Community
has a number of votes equal to the number of its member States. Decisions of
the Ministerial Conference and the General Council are taken by a majority of
the votes cast.
WTO related Agreements
- Agreement on Agriculture
- Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
- Agreement on Textiles and Clothing
- Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade
- Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures
- Agreement on Preshipment Inspection
- Agreement on Rules of Origin
- Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures
- Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures
- Agreement on Safeguards
- Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
- Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes
- Trade Policy Review Mechanism
- Plurilateral Trade Agreements
- Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft
- Agreement on Government Procurement
- International Dairy Agreement
- International Bovine Meat Agreement
International standards:
An annex to the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement cites standards which are to be used in connection with trade matters:
- The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission for food
- The International Animal Health Organization (Office International des Epizooties) for animal health
- The FAO's Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention for plant health
- For matters not covered by the above organizations, appropriate standards, guidelines and recommendations promulgated by other relevant international organizations open for membership to all Members, as identified by the Committee can be added.
Protection of life or health:
Article 20 of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) allows governments to act on trade in order to protect human, animal or plant life or health, provided they do not discriminate or use this as disguised protectionism. In addition, there are two specific WTO agreements dealing with food safety and animal and plant health and safety, and with product standards.
The Sanitary
and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement sets out basic rules. It allows
countries to set their own standards. But it also says regulations must be based on science. They should be applied only to the extent necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health. And they should not arbitrarily or unjustifiable discriminate between countries where identical or similar conditions prevail.
Member countries are encouraged to use international standards, guidelines and
recommendations where they exist. However, members may use measures which result in higher standards if there is scientific justification. They can also set higher standards based on appropriate assessment of risks so long as the approach is consistent, not arbitrary. And they can to some extent apply the "precautionary principle", a kind of "safety first" approach to deal with scientific uncertainty. Article 5.7 of the SPS Agreement allows temporary "precautionary" measures.
The agreement still allows countries to use different standards and different methods of inspecting products. If an exporting country can demonstrate that the measures it applies to its exports achieve the same level of health protection as in the importing country, then the importing country is expected to accept the exporting country's standards and methods.
Codex Alimentarius Commission
The Codex Alimentarius Commission was created in 1963 by FAO and WHO to develop food standards, guidelines and related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme.
The main purposes of this Programme are protecting health of the consumers and ensuring fair trade practices in the food trade, and promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organisations.
The Codex Alimentarius Commission published only voluntary standards for the hygienic and nutritional quality of food, food additives, pesticide residues, contaminants, labelling and methods on analysis and sampling. The General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) transformed into a formal organisation the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 1994.
The chloramphenicol ban that certain U.S. States placed in the mid 1980s and the current hormone ban negotiations between Europe and the U.S. initiated the creation of the Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS) WTO document which was written by the U.S. Codex delegation in 1987.
Chloramphenicol has been banned in Europe for use on animals since 1994.
Drugs such as chloramphenicol and sulfonamide are sometimes used to protect honey bees from brood diseases. Honey with elements of chloramphenicol and sulphonamide were detected in a UK honey brand which was composed of a blend of imported honey.The honey was recalled in November 2005.
Exposure to chloramphenicol in food in any quantity is undesirable, but the level of risk will depend on how much is consumed and how frequently. Chloramphenicol and sulphonamide in food are illegal. Chloramphenicol can cause cancer and lead to aplastic anaemia in susceptible people.
The importance of the Standards and Guidelines of the Codex Alimentarius Commission and the WTO is growing with global trade and exchange of foods enforcing the ban of pesticides and antibiotics in food worldwide.
The Codex Standards are now being recognized as scientific and they are being used as a point of reference in cases of disputes over non-Tariff trade barriers and whether certain trade restrictions have a legitimate scientific basis by the WTO agreement on the SPS and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). International Corporations and global trade organizations are becoming strongly interested in the Codex, as it helps to harmonize regulations on a worldwide level.
The United States came under World Trade
Organization penalties failing to eliminate a tax break. It was declared an illegal export subsidy by the WTO. A 5 percent penalty tariff awaits U.S. exports such as jewelry and refrigerators, toys and paper. The dollar's sharp decline in value against the euro, the European Union currency, means American goods are cheaper on European markets. That may protect U.S. Manufacturers.
Export Dumping
The practice of selling products at prices below their cost of production is one of the most damaging of all current distortions in world trade practices.
The U.S. is one of the world's leading sources of dumped agricultural commodities such as wheat, maize, soybean, rice and cotton. Brazil is considering a case against U.S. cotton before the World Trade Organization (WTO). In 2001, Canada briefly imposed both countervailing and anti-dumping duties on U.S. corn imports.
WTO wants to address dumping in
agriculture following three steps
1. The elimination of visible export subsidies as quickly as possible.
2. A commitment from exporting countries to keep products priced below the cost of production out of world markets.
3. The publication of annual fullcost of production estimates for OECD countries.
Developing countries need healthy agricultural sectors to eliminate poverty. To achieve this, agricultural commodities must be priced fairly.
Definitions of Dumping:
If a country
determines that imports into their country are dumped, and if they can establish that "material injury" to domestic competitors is occurring, then antidumping duties are a WTO-legal response. There are two common definitions of export dumping contained in Article Six of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT):
First definition:The first definition describes the export of a product at a price below the normal selling price in its domestic market. For example, if a Japanese car is sold in Japan at a higher price as it is sold in an other country, this fact is called dumping.
The second definition of dumping contained in
Article Six of the GATT applies to situations where the domestic price is too distorted to provide a useful reference. This happens when government regulation crowded out (or even prohibited) the functioning of an open market through regulations, subsidies, price supports and other instruments. This is the case when the export price into another market is less than the cost of production in the country of origin plus a reasonable addition for transportation, handling and profit. Agricultural production is often exported under these conditions.
Oligopolis:
Market prices are also distorted by the
presence of oligopolies. A few transnational agri-business firms dominate all
agricultural commodity production, transportation and processing in the United
States. Over 80 per cent of US corn is exported by three firms: Cargill, ADM and Zen Noh. The top four beefpackers in the United States are Tyson (owner of Iowa Beef Packers), ConAgra, Cargill (owner of Excell Corporation), and Farmland National Beef Packing Company. They control 81% of the market.
Three of these four (Smithfield replaces Farmland) are also the top pork packers; two (Tyson and ConAgra) are among the top poultry producers. Cargill ranks among the top three or four companies across the sector, from beef and pork packing, to turkeys, animal feed, grain terminals, corn exports, soybean exports, flour milling, soybean crushing, and ethanol production.
Visible export subsidies should be eliminated as
quickly as possible via the WTO or the OECD over the next few years. Countries must make a commitment to keep products priced below the cost of production out of world markets. Since the exporting and importing corporations that profit at present from this dumping are not likely to voluntarily give up this practice, countries will need to take policy measures to gain corporate compliance.
By far the easiest and most WTO-legal approach is for the importing country to
impose countervailing duties to bring the dumping prices up to the cost of
production levels. The most effective way to end dumping will be to work inside
the United States, the European Union, and other major grain exporters to secure
legislation that ensures export prices capture the full cost of production,
including the cost of marketing and a reasonable profit.
The OECD has to publish each year a full-cost of production estimate, including all producer paid costs, government paid input costs, and the cost of marketing with a fair profit, as the GATT proposes in Article 6.
Governments could phase out dumping over five years through eliminating direct export subsidies and using full cost of production prices to ensure fair prices.
Europe has used the so-called Peace clause that was put
in place during the Uruguay Round to protect many of its farm industries with hefty subsidies that adversely affected Australian producers. The Peace clause is believed to be finished at the end of 2003. Australia, together with Brazil use the end of the clause to particularly target subsidies such as sugar.
Sugar world prices are low mainly because of the ten-fold increase in exports
from Brazil (to over 10 million tons) in the last 10 years aiming to expand its
production even further to 50 per cent of the world sugar market.
According to British Sugar Brazil has been able to expand its exports of sugar to the world market only because of repeated massive devaluations of its currency and has been supported by cross subsidy from their heavily government-supported bioethanol industry. Danisco, big in business with sugar from sugar beet in Europe, is also consternated about the matter.
With the failure of WTO talks in Cancun in September 2003, pressure has
intensified on Europe
The three options for change the regime of sugar currently under discussion in Brussels are: leaving the regime as it is; providing a price reduction; or alternatively full liberalization for sugar.
While critics want to see a fairer regime with Europe flinging open the doors to imports from developing countries, European sugar producers are concerned that full liberalization would raze the industry to the ground killing about 75 per cent of the sugar production with massive job losses. The European beet growers' association (CIBE) estimates that 500,000 jobs in the EU depend on the current common market organization (CMO) sugar regime, in place since 1968.
Full liberalization would mean abolishing the current domestic EU price support system, abandoning production quotas and totally removing import tariffs and quantitative restrictions on imports.
Meanwhile the struggle between EU and USA continues. The dispute arose over the
so-called Foreign Sales Corporation tax ruled illegal at the end of the 1990s.
[2553]
[2554]
India, second in sugar plantation after Brazil, may now increase its output
using the new sugar beet plants from Syngenta. The plant needs 30 to 50 per
cent less water than sugar cane.
The new sugar beet can grow well in warm climate where it can bring two
harvests a year. Its sugar yield is higher as obtained with sugar cane. It
sounds good. It grows at saline and poor quality soil that cannot be used for
other agricultural purposes, so not more land is needed to increase sugar
output. This means that sugar output can be expanded without taking land from other food crops.
After ten years of development the sugar production for food started in Ambad
near Jalna, and bioethanol at Kalas, near Pune. The use of tropical sugar
beet in other tropical regions with poor soil conditions is being examined.
It is the revival of the Green Revolution, were there not the doubts about gene
transfer to soil, bacteria and other plants. Can poor farmer afford to buy
Syngenta sugar beet seed and the accompanying agrarian chemicals?
[2555]
Climate and political factors in Sudan and Nigeria cause insecurity in the supply
of gum arabic
Sugar beet pectin was found by Siew and Williams 2008 to be a substitute
being, however, more expensive than gum arabic.
Studying the content of protein and ferulic acid of the sugar beet pectin
fraction the authors found that one or both of these two functional groups
adsorb onto the surface of the oil droplets and stabilize the emulsions.
The authors concluded that compared to those made with gum arabic, the
emulsion samples made with sugar beet pectin samples exhibited similar (or even slightly higher) stability.
Syngenta moves to China
[2556]
Swiss biotech Syngenta moves its biotechnology centre to Beijing, China to
evaluate genetically-modified and native traits in soy, corn, wheat, sugar
beet and sugar cane. It will focus on yield improvement, drought resistance,
disease control, and the conversion of biomass for biofuels.
China known to disregard food safety, is an easy market for Syngenta.
The joint framework of EU and US had been presented for the WTO negotiations
Cancun meetings, focusing on three areas: domestic support, market access and export competition.
For domestic support, the paper provides substantial cuts by all members who use trade distorting subsidies.
For market access, there is a formula which takes on board both the formulas discussed to date (Uruguay Round and so-called 'Swiss' formula), while fully preserving the elements of flexibility and recognition of the existence of sensitive products.
The framework paper addresses export subsidies refunds and exports credits, provides partial elimination of export subsidization for a common list of products of interest for developing countries and provides a path for parallel reduction of export subsidization for the products that are not eliminated.
Globalization benefits the shift of production from traditional countries to emerging markets, bringing important consequences for the US soybean industry.
Peter Goldsmith at the University of Illinois says that the US share of world soybean production has declined since the early 1990s from about 50 per cent to less than 40 per cent. During that time, Brazil's share increased to more than 25 per cent, and Argentina's share rose to nearly 15 per cent. Similar changes are underway in the processing sector.
The staple food for over 500 million people, cassava is a good commercial cash crop and a major source of food security, but it needs a competitive edge to thrive in the global starch market.
Competing in the mainstream commodity starch arena - maize, wheat or potato - is 'extremely difficult', particularly when it is not the commodities themselves that are the competition, 'but rather the functional characteristics of the value-added products'.
Until recently, the starch markets of the world were virtually closed to foreign countries because high import duties created barriers to trade for anything but the most basic of commodities. But in April 1994 the GATT Uruguay Round paved the way for new trade opportunities.
In 2002 Nigeria came in as the largest producer of cassavain the world. But in 2003 despite favorable weather conditions in the country, an outbreak of mosaic disease placed its cassava crop under pressure.
Cassava is cultivated for its starchy, tuberous roots that can be processed into tapioca, ground to produce manioc or cassava meal (Brazilian arrowroot), used as animal fodder or cooked and eaten as a vegetable.
Thailand is the world's leading exporter of aggregate dry cassava products, also known as tapioca, in the form of pellets for the feed industry in USA under a low tariff rate preferential quota.
The three most important instruments of economic power - World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) try to force the worlds acceptance of genetically modified foods and crops.
The American administration launched in May 2003 a complaint with the WTO against the European Union for its five-year ban on approving new biotech crops, claiming the European policy to be illegal, harming the American economy.
The WTO Agreement on Agriculture is being used to attack the European Union, which will be forced to either alter its policy toward GM crops and foods, or face economic sanctions across a range of sectors.
The US has so far opposed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety which entered into force in September 2003 and has been signed by over 100 countries being intended to ensure through agreed international rules and regulations that countries have the necessary information to make informed choices about GM foods and crops.
The USA has also avoided to sign the Kyoto Protocol (Biosafety). Since the US has still not ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), it has no need to follow the Cartagena Protocol and therefore will try to force the GM food to be accepted by all other countries.
With the biotech patents coming into force with TRIPs Agreement in 2005, agriculture research in developing countries will not be possible any more.
Kyoto protocol
During the Kyoto summit, participating nations agreed to reduce the CO
levels to 7% below the levels found in 1990. It is an agreement made under
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and was
negociated in Kyoto in December 1997. It entered into force on February 16,
2005. [2557] [2558]
Australia and United States have signed but, currently, refuse to ratify it.
The United States produces 20% of total carbon dioxide. To protectig its
industry the USA did not sign the protocol, proposing to plant forests in the
USA and third world countries.
CO is not eliminated by photosynthese. It is released again once
organism dies and decays.
Studying forestation it has been found that forests inherently warm the
atmosphere by absorbing heat from light due to their non-reflective leaves.
An increase of number of trees means more fires, and this increases global warming.
The only option for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide is by reducing the
amount of gas released from burning of fossil fuels. 06.03.07: Sustainability
[2559]
The The Obama /Steven Chu administration plan to use Carbon Capture and
Storage (CCS) and nuclear power to tackle the climate change. Following the
data of the Nordell and Gervet this may be a wrong decision.
According to Nordell 2003 the earth experienced thermal equilibrium over
longer time-scales. Net incoming solar energy and geothermal heat flow were
counterbalanced by a net heat outflow emitted to outer space until 1880.
Beginning with the industrial revolution heat dissipation from the global use
of non-renewable energy sources has resulted in additional net heating. The
resulting thermal pollution contributes to global warming until the global
temperature has reached a level where this heat is also emitted to space. The
author says that the additional heat from the use of fossil fuels and nuclear
power is the main source of thermal pollution.
There are no consistent facts which back the assumption that greenhouse gases
are responsible for rising temperatures, it is based only on the observation
that global warming coincides with increasing emissions of carbon dioxide,
and other greenhouse gases from about 275 ppm in 1880 to 370 ppm today. This,
however does not include the fact that the heat flow from nuclear power does
not depend on CO2 emission and is thus forgotten in global net heat flow.
Nordel stresses that 98% of the greenhouse effect is caused by water vapour
and clouds which absorb infrared sunlight in the atmosphere and only 2% by
CO2 and others.
The authors conclude that efforts to reduce the CO2 emissions do not reduce the
global net heat generation. Nuclear power harms the climate at most because of
the large amounts of heat generated by nuclear power production. Therefore
renewable earthbound energy and solar energy should be used to avoid to disturb
the energy balance of Earth.
[2560]
Bo Nordell and Bruno Gervet 2009 found that heat accumulating since 1880 in
air, ground, and water causes climate change. To explain this phenomena the
net heat emissions on Earth must be considered.
The authors stress that global air temperature increase is an inadequate
measure of global warming and suggest to use the global net energy. The heat
accumulated in the atmosphere corresponds to a mere 6.6% of global warming,
while the remaining heat is stored in the ground (31.5%), melting ice
(33.4%) and sea water (28.5%).
The global use of fossil fuel and nuclear power was found to contribute to global
warming. The authors recommend to reduce our reliance on burning fossil fuels and
switch to renewables like wind power and solar energy are the main strategies to
avoid climate change. Recommendations not to rely on carbon dioxide
sequestration and nuclear energy are reiterated.
[2561]
Matthevs and colleagues 2009 link carbon-climate response (CCR) allows
CO(2)-induced global mean temperature change.
Matthevs and colleagues define the carbon-climate response (CCR) as the ratio
of temperature change to cumulative carbon emissions. The stress that CCR is
approximately independent of both the atmospheric CO(2) concentration and its
rate of change on these timescales.
The proportionality of global warming to cumulative carbon emissions is estimated
by the authors to be in the range 1.0-2.1 degrees C per trillion tonnes of
carbon. The authors point out that, following the data of their study, one
tonne of carbon dioxide leads to 0.0000000000015 degrees of global temperature
change. They conclude further that to restrict global warming to no more than 2
degrees total carbon emissions must be restricted, from now until forever to
little more than half a trillion tonnes of carbon, or about as much again which
ha been emitted since the beginning of the industrial revolution. [2562]
Reading the study of Matthevs may lead to the erroneous assumptions that CO2 is
the main cause of global warming. As explained by Nordell and Gervet 2009
[2560] the CO2 concentration is only an indicator of
the amount of carbon being released in the atmosphere. The so called "greenhouse
gases" are responsible only for 2% of trapping heat. The huge 98% greenhouse
effect comes from water vapour and clouds. Nordell says that input of
non-renewable energy and nuclear energy are causing climate change. The authors
calls to abandon plans on Carbon Capture and Store on non-renewable energy and
avoid nuclear energy because both add external energy to the thermodynamic of the
global system. Solar energy is being recommended by Nordell.
[2563]
The journal Nature published a report of Johan Rockström and colleagues 2009
setting ten boundaries which should not be exceeded to avoid crossing dangerous
tipping points. These include atmospheric CO2 levels, the rate of species
extinction, the over-use of nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilisers, use of fresh
water, the clearing of land, ozone depletion, ocean acidification,aerosol
pollution of the atmosphere and chemical contamination. The authors add that if
one boundary is transgressed, then safe levels for other boundaries are
endangered, so the land use changes in the Amazon may cause water scarcity in
Tibet,
The authors stress that most human activities depend on fossile energy and on
agriculture which is heavily mechanised. They propose an upper limit of 350
parts per million by volume of CO2 in the atmosphere, and that radiative forcing
should not exceed 1 watt per square metre above pre-industrial levels(the rate of
energy change per unit area of the globe as measured at the top of the
atmosphere). Transgressing these boundaries will increase the risk of
irreversible climate change. The authors say that the current CO2 concentration
stands at 387 p.p.m.v. and the change in radiative forcing is 1.5 W per square
metre. This requires immediate reduction in fossil fuels.
The manufacture of fertilizer for food production and the cultivation of
leguminous crops convert around 120 million tonnes of nitrogen from the
atmosphere per year into reactive forms, influencing lake systems and marine
ecosystems. The authors propose to reduce new reactive nitrogen to 25current value, or about 35 million tonnes of nitrogen per year, and no more than
11 million tonnes of phosphorus per year should be allowed to flow into the
oceans.
The authors conclude that there are significant uncertainty over how long it
takes to cause dangerous environmental change or to trigger other feedbacks that
drastically reduce the ability of the earth system, or important subsystems, to
return to safe levels. They stress that, as long as the thresholds are not
crossed, humanity has the freedom to pursue long-term social and economic
development. Politicians will appreciate these conclusion giving them the
possibility to shelve the report because of its uncertainties and the lack of any
suggestion how to amend the situation.
This reports misses to give solutions for climate changer and does not tackle
rising use of chemical fertilisers. It is amazing how the serious scientific
Journal Nature prints such inconsistent article which repeats affirmations
already known long before and which had been repeated over and over.
To overcome the paralyzing passivity of scientists which are advisors of the
political leaders, here are some solution presented. They could be used in
Copenhagen as friendly approach of the global problems. However, those who are
in charge to present suggestions are deeply entangled in lobbying for oil,
natural gas and nuclear power.
Fossil fuel dependence should be
drastically, if not completely zeroed using solar electricity and hydrogen as
fuel for transportation. A global grid according to Fuller may supply all
nations [2564]. Electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen
may stabilise the grid, using peak energy from wind turbines. Global
greenhouse gases emission reduced near zero. [2565]
Activities of giant
agriculture corporations should be limited by international laws. This
includes the US corn belt of the Mississipi region where most of the runoff of
nitrogen and phosphor occur. Dr. Vandana Shiva Navdanya developed such a
system for small agricultural systems which are based on sustainable
agriculture. [2566]
Changing the energy economy from fossil origin to solar energy and hydrogen and
changing the demographic structure of our society means that scientists should
stand for their ideal to work for the development of our culture. Powerless and
helpless activities such as shown by Dr. Steven Chu, as energy advisor of the
USA, is disappointing. All scientists are hereby urged to present solutions and
not disagreements. The previous cited hydrogen economy and the agricultural
system of Dr. Vandana Shiva Navdanya are robust foudations for a global
agreement in Copenhagen.
[2567]
According to Professor Beddington at a conference on sustainability in London
in 06.03.08 cautioned that shoppers in the United Kingdom will have to faced
big price rises because of the soaring cost of feeding livestock resulting from
the rush towards biofuels. Other speakers said at the conference that it will
not be possible to grow enough crops to produce renewable energy and at the
same time meet the enormous demand for food.
[2568] According to Jean Ziegler
the conversion of arable land for plants used for biofuel had led to an
explosion of agricultural prices which was punishing poor countries forced to
import their food at a greater cost. He says that biofuel from food is a human
rights infraction.
He stresses that 232kg of corn is needed to make 50 litres of bioethanol. A
child could live on that amount of corn for a year.
Ziegler proposes a five-year moratorium, to be submitted to the UN General
Assembly on October 25. The moratorium bans the conversion of land for the
production of biofuels.
The author says that in five years science may create a"second generation"
biofuels, made from agricultural waste or from non-agricultural plants such as
jatropha, which grows naturally on arid ground. Solar energy from the deserts
may produce sufficient hydrogen for transportation. Biofuel may then not be
needed any more.
In Brazil moncultures of sugar cane, castor-oil plant and soy spreading at the
expense of food-producing land and harming the environment. In Borneo and
indonesia palmoil plantations have a deep impact on nature. While ten hectares
(316 to 316 metres) of food-producing land may sustain seven to ten farmers,
the same area can only produce enough sugar cane for one farmer.
[2569] According to a report of the World
Bank, released in advance the G-8 Summit in Japan, biofuels have driven up
global food prices by 75 percent, accounting for more than half of the 140
percent jump in price since 2002. The report says that a US analyses claiming
that just 3 percent of the food price increases could be attributed to
biofuels is not true.
Robert Zoellick, president of the world Bank blames the European Union and the
United States for increasing biofuel production which is the major factor for
food scarcity and rising prices.
To cut CO2 emission the European Union plan to admixture 10 percent of biofuel
to petrol by 2020. The US heavily backs bio-ethanol to reduce America's
dependence on foreign oil.
Cutting down Rain forest and draining peat bogs, natural CO2 sequestration of
developing regions will be reduced. Fertilizers used in the biofuel production
release nitrous oxide which is up to 300 times more harmful than CO2. Biofuels
are therefore not seen as carbon neutral any more.
The majority of the phosphorus in cereal
grains and oilseed meals is organically bound as phytic acid or phytate which
is nutritionally unavailable to nonruminant animals like swine and poultry.
They lack phytase in their digestive tract, and must be supplemented with
inorganic phosphorus. Not used phosporus passes the digestive tract and end in
the environment. Biofuel production increases further environmental phosphorus
and nitrogen being washed by rainwater into the open waters increasing algal
bloom and fish dying.
Adding phytase to the feed of pig and poultry may become a strategy to
counter steady increasing feed phosphate prices and may reduce the heavy
environmental burden of pig and poultry farming.
Rising demand of phosphate fertilizers for food and ethanol crops to feed
developing nations and produce ethanol, reduce the available quantity of feed
phosphates.
Recently developed bacterial phytases proved to be more effective in releasing
plant-bound phytate phosphorus than traditional fungal phytases, allowing a
reduction in dicalcium phosphate in feed up to 30%.
[2570]
Thacker and colleagues 2004 determine the effects of phytase supplementation
on nutrient digestibility in low-phytate barleys fed to finishing pigs. They
found that both supplementation with phytase and selection for low-phytate
genotypes of barley increasing the digestibility of phosphorus for pigs, but
no additive effects was noted in this study.
The authors leave it to the decision of the swine producers to choose between
low-phytate barley or supplementation with phytase. The authors stress that the
yield of low-phytate barley and the additional costs of the phytase
supplementation must be kept in mind.
[2571]
Manure phosphorus in areas of intensive animal production has high
environmental implications. Maguire and colleagues 2004 reported that turkey
and broiler litters resulting from feed with non-phytate phosphorus closer to
requirement decreased orthophosphate in litters by an average of 38%. The
study found no increase of the concentration of orthophosphate in litters
using feed supplemented with phytase, but a decrease of phytate phosphorus
in litters up to 38% resulting from phytate phosphorus hydrolysis.
The authors stress that feeding non-phytate phosphorus closer to requirement and
supplementing feed with phytase reduces total phosphorus concentrations in
litters leaving the phosphorus solubility in litters and amended soils
unaltered.
[2572]
Pillai and colleagues 2009 assessed the environmental impact of manure
utilization in land applications, comparing the effect of standard Australian
commercial diet from layer hens, with the effect of diets modified with
phytase supplementation.
The authors report an increase of water soluble phosphorus by 8 to 12% in
the manures, independent of the levels of nonphytase phosphorus in the diets.
This feed reduced total nitrogen content by 12 to 31% of the manures and
nitrate accumulation in the manure-amended soils increased. Net nitrification
occurred together with a decrease in soil pH resulting in retention of water
soluble phosphorus.
The researchers concluded that phytase supplementation of feed reduces manure
total nitrogen content, increases water-soluble phosphorus, and influences total
phosphorus and extractable mineral nitrogen is influenced by the nonphytase
phosphorus level in the diet.
[2573]
Dou 2009 and colleagues 2009 looked at heavily manured soils and their
phosphorus loss to water. Inorganic orthophosphate was the primary form of P
in manure treated and untreated soils. Also present are pyrophosphate and
phosphate monoesters. Phosphate diesters were scarcely found. Polyphosphate
was present in manured soils but absent in untreated soils.
Manure soils did not differ from untreated soils in relation to the
concentrations of inositol hexakisphosphate, even in soils receiving poultry
manure which is very rich in these compounds. The authors suggest that inositol
hexakisphosphate does not accumulate in soil and is carried by rain to open
waters, harming thus the environment. The potential phosphorus release is 3 to 30
times greater from treated than untreated soils.
[2574]
Phosphorus source coefficients (PSC) for manures, composts, and other organic
phosphorus (P) sources are indicators of P availability for transport in
runoff from agricultural soils. They are an important parameter of the P Site
Index (PSI) which is used in Mid-Atlantic states as part of comprehensive
nutrient management planning. [2575]
Shober and colleagues 2009 assess the effects of anoxic conditions on the
release of phosphorus from soils amended with manures and biosolids. In this
study the concentration of dissolved phosphorus released was significantly
lower under reducing conditions than under oxidized conditions.
The authors suggest precipitation of Fe(II)-oxide increasing P sorption capacity
of the soils or Fe(II)-phosphate decreases the solubility of P. the researchers
conclude that no PSCs changes are needed PSCs when assessing phosphorus
solubility of organic sources under reducing conditions under relatively static
conditions, which were defined by the authors as seasonable high water table,
periodically submerged soils and stagnant drainage ditches.
[2576]
Leytem and
colleagues 2008 assessed the different effects of various cereal grain diets
and supplementation with phytase. Phytase supplementation had a 3-fold
phytate P hydrolysis compared with unsupplemented diets. Barley diets
produced the lowest water soluble phosphorus excreta compared with other
cereals. The authors report further that there was a 25% reduction in water
soluble phosphorus from the high P to the low P + phytase diets. Changing the
diet from high phosphorus to the low phosphorus a 37% reduction of water
soluble phosphorus in manure was attained. The authors do not find it likely
that intrinsic phytase in grain meliorate the phytate utilization by poultry
because there was no difference noted between the effect of the different
cereals diets.
[2577]
Lim and colleagues 2004 point out that phytate is the most abundant organic
phosphorus compound in soil and runoffs into aquatic systems. Microbial
phytases mineralize phytate. From the four known classes of phytase in the
microbial world only the beta-propeller phytase family is present in aquatic
environments. It is also present in soil and plant bacteria.
According to the authors beta-propeller phytase genes act independently or are
closely associated with a TonB-dependent receptor-like gene in operons. The
linking of these two genes may be important in cycling of phosphorus and iron.
The authors stress that beta-propeller phytases play a major role in
phytate-phosphorus cycling in both soil and aquatic microbial communities.
[2578]
According to Simpson and colleagues 20087 renewable fuel production, such as
grain-ethanol and perennial-grass-based cellulosic ethanolgrain-based
ethanol,is expanding rapidly in the USA with enormous water quality implications.
The authors estimate that these crops cause a nitrogen loss to water of
2000-4000 kg ha yr. A greater acreage of corn is estimated to increase N and P
loss to water by 37% 117 000 tons and 25% 9 000 tons, respectively. These
runoffs are further increased by manure phosporus and nitrogen from animal
feed using dried distiller's grains.
Switchgrass and woody materials may replace grain fuel-stocks and provide
environmental benefits, however, all alternative fuel production technologies
will retain its environmental impacts. The authors stress the need to understand
these impacts to avoid environmental consequences of biofuel production.
[2579]
According to the National Chicken Council NCC, the Environmental Protection
Agency's rejected a request submitted in April by the Governor of Texas, Rick
Perry to grant a waiver of the ethanol mandate that is diverting corn from
livestock and poultry feed into motor fuel. The NCC says that it is outrageous
that the federal government continues to require and even to subsidize the
diversion of corn from the food supply into the fuel supply, The Council stresses
that food-to-fuel policy rises food prices and chicken companies are loosing
money, amounting up to.
[2580]
Tyner, Hurt and Abbott, 2008, in the study, What's Driving Food Prices?,
written for the Farm Foundation, identified three broad sets of forces driving
food price increases: global changes in production and consumption of key
commodities, the depreciation of the U.S. dollar, and growth in the production of biofuels.
The authors say that food price levels are the result of complex interactions
among multiple factors. However, one simple fact stands out: economic growth
and rising human aspirations are putting greater pressure on the global resource base.
The study stresses that policies, including subsidies and mandates, in the
United States and European Union led to the development of the biofuels
industry and its growing demand for corn and vegetable oils. In the last four
years, most of the growing global demand for corn has come from its increased
use for ethanol production. The ethanol blender credit, tariff and Renewable
Fuel Standard are factors causing increased corn price, but quantitatively
most of the increase has been driven by higher oil prices.
The report said that quantitatively, most of the corn price increase is driven by
high crude oil prices. Corn price has increased by $4 a bushel in four years,
and only $1 resulted from the ethanol subsidy, meanwhile the increase of the
crude oil price mounted up to $80 a barrel.
[2581]
The National Corn Growers Association hailed the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's decision today to deny a request to reduce the renewable fuels standard.
Ron Litterer, president of the association says: "We hope that those who have
been critical of corn ethanol because of its perceived connection to higher
retail food prices will work with us to help achieve a diversified and
comprehensive solution to high energy prices and our reliance on foreign oil."
The World Bank Report says
that bioalcohol from sugarcane have not had such a dramatic impact on world
food prices, however environment damage, loss of biodiversity and impact on
rural population is a catastrophe. [2582]
The World Bank report concludes that biofuels
production rises food prices by driving grain away from food production,
accounting for a third of US corn for ethanol production and half of
vegetable oils in the EU used as biodiesel; farmers set aside land for
biofuels crops; and grain speculation on the financial markets is being triggered.
The report recommends that the G-8 "agree on
action in the US and Europe to ease subsidies, mandates and tariffs on
biofuels that are derived from maize and oilseeds."
[2583]
Joachim von Braun, director of the International Food Policy Research
Institute warns that increased bioenergy costs are affecting food prices and
predicts a 20-40 per cent increase in food prices between now and 2020.
Higher feedstock prices would benefit energy crop producers. They would, however,
adversely affect poor consumers, as well as small farmers who buy more food than
they grow. For countries with a limited natural resource base, biofuels could
divert land and water away from the production of food and feed.
[2584] Arnd von Wissel, Head of the German
Biofuel Association denies stoutly the moratorium initiated by Ziegler and
argues that producing less biofuel in Europe would not solve the hunger in
developing countries. He argues that demand for biofuel creates jobs. These
arguments reflect the interests of the Biofuel Association which is focused on
the revenues of their members.
[2585]
China and India change the world food markets increasing food imports. Both
countries are not self-sufficient. Meanwhile the Amazon region is under heavy
environment pressure caused by the US company Cargill which has made Santarém
located at the Tapajós River as his terminal for soybeans. China is the major
customer for soybeans from the Amazon region. In one decade enormous areas were
clearcut by André Maggi Group, one of the world's largest soybean producers.
Soybean farms are swallowing up the traditional pastures of cattle farmers which
are forced to burn other areas to transform them to pastures. More than half of
all soybean production in the world now ends up in China. This increases meat
prices for the Brazilian population. Hundreds of small farmers became unemployed
when they sold their fields to soybean farmers are a consequence of changes in
eating habits. China and India will invest in Southeast Asia and Africa
establishing grain farms in Zambia and Uganda.
[2586]
The German environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel on a trip to Brazil says that
soybeans used as feed for meat farming endangers the rain forest of the Amazon
more than bioalcohol and biodiesel does. He says that it is easier for the
population to label cars as evil than to go to a vegan restaurant. Minister
Gabriel during hios visit to Brazil was lobbied by his Brazilian environment
minister Marina da Silva which presented the strategy to avoid further ecological disasters.
The minister Gabriel says that Germany will increase its import and
subventions of biofuel from Brazil as he sees no harm to Brazilian
environment and food supply for the population of the region. Brazil will
force palm oil plantation which destroyed great part of the rainforest on Indonesia.
Sugar cane in Brazil already covers 70.000 square kilometres and is planed to
be increased to 120.000 square kilometres in four years to feed the export of
alcohol to Germany. In the year 2025 the area covered by sugar cane are planed
to increase up to 210.000 square kilometres, which is the area of Great Britain.
The environment strategy Germany recently moved to an industry friendly course.
Environment researchers, such as Mojib Latif from the Leibniz-Institute for
Marine Sciences in Kiel, the United Nations and NGO's say relying on biofuel,
coal and fossil energy will lead to a disaster. [2587]
An alternative to old fashioned strategies is the use of solar energy from
the desert where it does not compete with food crops. [2614]
[2615]
Yugen Zhang and colleagues 2009 describe a method to transform carbon dioxide
into methanol which can be used as fuel.
The authors use N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs), an organocatalyst which
contains no toxic heavy metal and is stable under oxygen, in contrast to heavy
metal catalysts. Carbon dioxide is activated by the NHC catalyst and reacts
with Hydrosilane, a combination of silica and hydrogen. Water is added and
methanol is the endproduct.
The authors stress thatNHCs had been found to act as antioxidants to fight
degenerative diseases, and catalysts to transform sugars into an alternative
energy source.
[2616]
Matsuo and Kawaguchi 2006 propose a mixture of a zirconium benzyl phenoxide
complex and tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane catalyse the reaction of carbon dioxide
with hydrogen to generate methane via a bis(silyl)acetal intermediate.
[2617]
Methane hydrate is an ice-like substance composed of water and methane. It is
stable under high pressure and low temperature.
Westbrook and colleagues 2009 found that methane hydrate is being broken down
and methane rises as bubble plumes. Warming of the northward-flowing West
Spitsbergen current by 1
over the last thirty years causes the break
down of the methane hydrate.
Methan released from the seabed is seen as an agent of climate change. The
authors stress that if this process continues, enormous amounts of methane may
come free.
The attempt to reduce CO2 back to fuel is a desperate attempt to stick to the
carbon economy. The input energy getting the combustion product back to an
organic fuel will always be higher than what is achieved later on while burning
it again.
[2618]
Instead of burning carbon fuel and trying to transform a bit of the emission back
to a reusable fuel, any emission of carbon dioxide should be avoided. The Global
Energy Initiative of the Desert Energy Project presents a carbon-free energy
economy. Politicians, energy corporations and car makers have to get together to
embrace this promising energy field which is particulate emission free. The
emerging financial centres like China, India and the Arabian countries,
replacing US and Europe, will have the political and the financial strength to
implement the solar /hydrogen economy.
[2588]
According to Lidia Morawska and colleagues 2009 urban motor vehicle fleets are
a major source of particulate matter pollution, especially of ultrafine
particles less than 0.1 microm. Exposure to these particulate matter have
serious health effects. The authors compiled a set of tailpipe particle
emission factors presented for different vehicle and road type combinations.
These emission factors may be used to derive emission factors for other regions.
The authors stress the high emission of particulate matter and ultrafine
particles by urban vehicles, and the necessity to assess the health impact of
special areas.
[2589]
According to Knibbs and colleagues 2009 road tunnels provide high exposure
passengers to particulate matters, including ultrafine particles. The data of
this study were among the highest recorded concentrations. The authors stress,
therefore, the importance of road tunnels in the ultrafine particle exposure
of humans.
[2590]
According to Gertler and colleagues 2002 the mobile sources are a major source
of particulate matter of fine particles or PM2.5 which are smaller than 2.5
pm. Diesel engines are the main source of ultrafine particles smaller than 0.1
microm. Further emission of particulates originate from brake and tire wear
and by resuspension of particles from pavement.
The authors found that emissions of C8 to C20 hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
and carbon dioxide from heavy duty diesel decreased over a seven-year period.
Particulate mass emissions of PM2.5 also decreased from approximately 1,100
mg/km to 132 mg/km over a period of 25 years.
The study reports that low duty particle emission factor was considerably less
than the heavy duty value, but the high number of low duty vehicles augment
their importance. Ultrafine particles of 17 to 13 nm are the most abundant in
particulate emission and are composed of sulphur. A 48 per cent rise in the
NOx/CO2 emissions ratio in a seven years period is an indicative of NOx emission
increase in the new-technology diesel engines.
[2591]
Mazaheri and colleagues 2009 assessing aircraft emission during landing and
takeoff found that particle number, and NOx emission factors are dependent on
aircraft engine thrust level. Emitted particles in each mode of landing and
takeoff cycle ranged from 4 to 100 nm in diameter.
The authors urge the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to take
into account that aircraft thrust level is considerably higher during taxiing
than idling. ICAO standards consider 7% of total thrust for both of them alike
in its publication "Environmental Protection, Annex 16, Vol. II, Aircraft Engine
Emissions, 1993".
[2592]
The exhaust emissions from compressed natural gas (CNG) and ultralow sulphur
diesel in-service transport buses were assessed by Javaratne and colleagues
2009. The authors found that all emission factors increased with load.
The CNG buses emitted mainly particles in nano size range and were formed of
volatile organic compounds, with a median particle mass being less than 1 per
cent of that of the diesel counterpart, but the particle number emission were
alike between both types of buses. The CO2 emission factors of CNG were one
third greater than the emission of the diesel buses. NOx factors did not
differ between the two types of buses.
The European Parliament is aware of the need of an urgent global response to
rising food costs caused by climate change, a lack of supply, higher demand
and consumption and record oil prices, however the most damaging factor is
that investors have moved from oil to commodities, artificially inflating
prices in order to make bigger profits.
Global food prices rise 45 per cent in nine months. A UN intervention on global
trade of rice, wheat maize, soy palmoil, and canola is necessary to counter
artificial inflation of food prices at the stock market.
[2593]
The acai palm is native to Central and South America, from Belize southward to
Brazil and Peru. These palms grow mainly in swamps and floodplains. Acai palms
are fast-growing, and are cultivated for both their fruits and for their
superior hearts of palm. Global demand for the fruit has expanded rapidly in
recent years, and acaí is now cultivated for that purpose primarily.
[2594]
According to David Heber and colleagues 2008 claims to have superior antioxidants
or the new marketing term "superfoods" and "superfruits" including acai,
mangosteen, noni, sea
buckthorn, and Chinese wolfberry (goji) is based on in vitro antioxidant
assays, and most of them lack clinical evidence of the effects on
physiological function. Many foods are highlighted as disease fighting foods,
awakening hope to cure cancer, Alzheimers disease, coronary artery diseases,
improve sexual activity. The food and beverage industry and food supplement
manufacturers explore the fears, the hope and eagerness to improve physical
status or to look after anti-ageing products.
The industry commercialised ready-to-drink polyphenol-rich beverages supported
by heavy marketing activities covering health, sport and wellness.
The Heber compared the antioxidant content and the in vitro inhibition of LDL
(average) of polyphenol-rich beverages on market. The researchers found that
acai was in the middle of these products, far behind pomegranade juice (Punica
granatum) (97%), Red wine (69%), Concorde grape juice (38.4%), blueberry
juice (48.6%))and black cherry juice (34.2%), cranberry juice (38.8%),
acai (19.6%).
Other beverages presented low inhibition, such as orange juice(10.3%), apple
juice (1,4%), iced green tea (12.5%), iced black tea (11.8%) and iced white tea (8.4%).
The authors say that some beverages must be consumed in much larger amounts to
have the same effect of pomegranade juice or red wine. These two do have effects
in humans including anti-inflammatory effects.
[2595] [2596]
The Center for Science in the Public Interest is warning consumers not to
enroll online in supposedly free trials of diet products made with the trendy Brazilian
berry acai. The Center says that there is no evidence whatsoever to suggest that
acai pills will reduce body weight, flatten tummies, cleanse colons, enhance
sexual desire, or perform any of the other commonly advertised functions.
[2597]
Profitable market for palm hearts and acai products exert great pressure on
the Amazon ecology. The natural rainforest lands are clear-cut for mass
cultivation of acai, following a project of planting 5 billion acai trees in
the next 10 years.
Soy plantations, cattle farming and exotic plantations like acai endanger nature,
deprive poor native population of acai as affordable food. In 2008 Marina Silva
resigned as environment minister after the Amazon development project was taken
away from her and given to the Harvard Professor Roberto Mangabeira Unger who
wants to include the Amazon Region in one of the greatest agro-industry project
ever seen. It will boost Brazilian ethanol production to replace 5% of crude oil
by 20025. The sustainable use of the acai palm by the local population and
indian tribes is changed to a mass-production to feed the international market.
[2598]
[2599]
Embrapa, a department of the Brazilian government, forces the development of
acai production and export.
Embrapa says that already 200,000 km
of the region were deforested to
give place for cattle farming, soy and sugar cane plantation. This is an area
which is bigger than Swiss and Austria summed together. Covering such an area
with a monoculture of palms repeat the errors of Indonesia and the palm oil
production for biodiesel. Revenues will not benefit the local indigenous
population, but enrich commercial entities from abroad. Embrapa admits that
the heavy export cause shortage of acai at the local market and exploding
price make it unaffordable for the poor population which used it as staple food.
Plantations are located around the Marajó Island at Cametá, Furos de
Breves e Arari Ajuru, Abaetetuba, Igarapé-Miri, Ponta de Pedras, Limoeiro e
Mocajuba,which account for 90% of the commercial production.
According to Embrapa the annual production of 15 thousand hectares finaced by the
state, and other plantations is 160,000 Tons, but will increase as soon new
plantations start to produce fruits, which is estimated to become 8
tons/hectare.
[2599]
-Acai dense, or special (Type A): Pulp extracted with water. Total solids over
14%, appearance is very dense.
- Acai medium or regular (Type B): Pulp extracted with water. Total solids
between 11% and 14%. Appearance is dense.
- Acai thin or popular (Tipe C) Pulp extracted with water. Total solids between
8% and 11%, appearance is less dense.
Decontamination with 10 to 60 minutes immersion in a solution of chlorine (20
ppm to 50 ppm active chlorine)
Pasteurisation is
recommended by 80 to 85 during 10 seconds in a tubular heat
exchanger. Final temperatur of the proiduct should be 5.
-18 a -20 or below.
To the production of acai powder temperatures of 135
a 140 are used. Outlet temperature of the system is 85
a 90 . Allied pressure is 4,9 a 6,2 kg/cm. The powder should be
packed in aluminized plastic bags.
[2600]
Peach-palm also known as pupunheira, and pupunha in Brazil. Bactris gasipaes. The
fruit is frequently stewed in salted water. It is used to make compotes and
jellies, or also used to make flour and edible oil. This palm is fast growing. Harvest of
heart of palm can be accomplished 18 to 24 months after planting. The plant is a
substitute for acai palm to produce hearts of palm. Its commercial cultivation
increases environment degradation of the lower Amazon.
[2601]
Since 2002 Australia has experienced the worst drought in recorded history.
Extreme drought are expected to occur every year or every two years, from 2010
on. Half of the rain fall lacking since 1950 is blamed to be related to man
made emission of greenhouse gases.
Australian agriculture is being severely hit by the climate change. The continent
had been the second world exporter of wheat. Exports dropped in 2007 down to 13
million tons.
Regions of 5 percent of Australia experiencing extreme temperatures may
expand uip to 95 percent of the Australian territory.
These issues have highlighted the reality of global climate change. Australian
ecosystems, water resources, agriculture, built infrastructure, regional and
remote communities, and health all have vulnerabilities to climate change.
Responses need to embrace nearly all aspects of our economy, society and the
environment.
The problem of climate change is serious and demands a major response, which
requires two platforms:
- Mitigation of impact, through reduction of net greenhouse gas emissions.
- Adaptation to the inevitable climate change that will occur while mitigation
gradually takes hold. [2602]
Australian may use the desert area for solar power plants and hydrogen production
for transportation fuel. This could lead to a new export economy based on
hydrogen. [2614]
[2603]
Barnett and Pierce 2009 found that climate change may dry out the Lakes Mead
and Powel, reservoirs on the Colorado River The authors say that this will
happen in the next 20 years if no effort will be undertaken to preserve a
minimum amount of water in the reservoir. Such measures could be delivery
cuts. Lake Mead and Powel were build based on data of the 20th century which
was very wet, compared with data from tree rings of the region. Therefore an
increasing chance of substantial shortages during dry years is predicted by
Barnett and Pierce. Water delivery shortage of 60 -90% of the Colorado River
region is being expected.
The authors concluded that big shortfalls may be avoided if the river's users
reduce their average water use. The sustainability of the system could thus be
secured even if the climate changes. Food production of the region will be
affected by drought.
[2604]
The Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB in
Stuttgart, Germany, develops a system to collect drinking water from air
humidity. The Institute says that
there is humidity in the atmosphere of deserts and cite the Negev desert in
Israel, with an annual average relative air humidity of 64 percent and 11.5
millilitres of water in every cubic meter of air.
Siegfried Egner from the Frauenhofer Institute explains that their system uses
hygroscopic salt brine which absorbs moisture from the air. The diluted brine
is transferred to a vacuum tank heated by solar energy. There the water
evaporates, is cooled and drops in a storage tank. On its way down the
droplets create the vacuum for the distillation tank. The reconcentrated
brine is reused for new moisture absorption.
The device can be dimensioned as single-person unit or as plants to supply water
to entire hotels. This could alleviate the water scarcity in the desert and arid
regions.
Seawater contains about 35 grams of salt per litre and brackish water contains
5 grams per litre and must be desalinated to be suitable as drinking water.
Desalination uses high amount of energy.
Desalination systems are:
Vacuum destilation is used. In the
distillation process, feedwater is heated and then evaporated to separate out
dissolved minerals. The most common methods of distillation include multistage
flash (MSF), multiple effect distillation (MED), and vapor compression (VC)
Distillation plants produce a high-quality product water that ranges from 1.0
to 50 ppm tds, while RO plants produce a product water that ranges from 10 to
500 ppm tds. (The recommended California drinking water standard for maximum
tds is 500 mg/L, which is equivalent to 500 ppm.)
High pressure forces salty water through
membranes retaining the salt.
It uses electricity to
draw salt ions out of water through a membrane. Both methods require large
amounts of energy.
[2605]
These cells are being studied because they
offer the advantage to clean waste water and deliver electricity which may be
used for desalinarion. Logan, Kape and colleagues 2009 suggest the desalination
of wastewater using a process which works without electrical energy input or high
water pressure by adding a third central chamber between the positive and the
negative cells using membranes as walls of a typical microbial fuel cell. The
authors explain that a typical microbial fuel cell consists of one chamber filled
with wastewater and the other with water, each containing an electrode. Bacteria
in the wastewater produce electricity. The researcher added a third central
chamber. The water to be desalinated is located in the central chamber. When the
bacteria in the cell consume the wastewater protons are released. At the other
electrode of the water chamber protons are consumed. Chlorine negative ions move
from the salty water into the wastewater chamber and sodium positive ions move to
the opposite chamber, desalinating the water in the middle chamber.
Decreased salinity of the central chamber decreases the conductivity, stopping
desalination at 3.5 gram/litre in seawater and 0.5 g of salt per litre in
brackish water.
[2606]
Soy beans, fish meal and oil are basics of animal feed. Their price influences
global food trade prices.
According to a market report of FAO Globefish The cost of many vegetable oils
has doubled in the past year as a result of a confluence of factors, including
use of crops for biofuels and insufficient harvests.
Fish oil is actually a by-product of the fish meal industry, with the protein
part used largely for animal feed. The price of fish oil is closely related to
the fluctuation of the price of vegetable oil. Up to 80% of fish oil is used in
aquaculture as feed for farmed fish. As vegetable oils gets expensive, fish
farmers have opted for the comparatively cheaper fish oil instead, increasing the
demand for fish oil.
The price of fish oil rose from
US$800 per metric tonne in February 2007 to $2200 per metric tonne in February
2008.
Fish meal prices of US$ 1 210/tonne is about US$
100/tonne 6% below the price level one year ago due to little buying interest
in China. Prices for fish meal and fish oil will remain high in a climate of
overall increasing vegetable meal prices, creating an environment of higher
prices.
The present price level of soymeal is US$ 500/tonne
is almost double the price level of one year ago.
[2607]
The UN has called for a five-year moratorium
on biofuels. Growing crops for fuel is more profitable than planting food crops.
UK will rethink their biofuel politic.
The European Commission, however decided in February to rise the level of
biofuel up to 10% by 2020. Germany tries to rise the content of bioalcohol from
5% to 10% in German petrol by 2009. Stop such enormous monocultures of rape
see, Soy, castor oil and palmoil in Argentina, Brazil. These plantations use the
best soil for cereals and they destroy the rain forests. The corn belt of USA
should get back to produce food for humans and not alcohol as fuel.
Cut the set-aside land
subvention of 6,5 Million Hectares being 1,6 Billion EURO/year for farmers to
do nothing. Every farmer which produces more than 92 ton cereals/year is
forced to set-aside 10% of his land, for which he then gets the set-aside subventions.
[2608]
Meat
farming consumes enormous amount of cereals which otherwise could be used as
human nutrition. Eating more vegetables and fruits is healthy and helps to reduce food shortage.
[2609]
Strange suggestions like geoengineering are being elaborated with highly
subsidized projects by Ken Caldeira from the Carnegie Institution of
Washington in Stanford:
Bomb the atmosphere with sulphur particles to becloud the sun (Paul Crutzer, costs some billion Dollar);
Position a solar sail between the sun and the earth to shadow the earth (Lowel
Wood and Roger Augel, costs 100 Billion Dollar);
Nebulise sea water ot get clouds whiter (John Latham and Stephen Salter);
Add fertiliser to the sea in form of iron sulphate (Alfred Wegener-Institut AWI Bremerhaven Germany);
Sequestrate CO2 from the atmosphere; reforest and burn wood (Elmar Kriegler and
Joshuah Stolaroff, Potsdam Institut für Klimafolgenforschung PIK, Germany,
costs 100 to 170 Billion Dollars).
Offshore Wind Energy
increase solar energy and cooperate with Arabian states to develop solar
electricity and production on hydrogen in the Arabian deserts. Hydrogen from
solar energy may provide plenty clean fuel for transportation. [2614]
The Arabian solution based on solar electricity and hydrogen for
transportation was built on researches from Kosuke Kurokawa [2610]
and the Buckminster Fuller's Electrical Grid [2611]
The Arabian solution is planed to start its production of clean electricity and
hydrogen by electrolysis of water in 2009. It is a financial enterprise of
Arabian countries to minor the dependence of fossil energy. The emerging Arabian
technology will leave behind western dreamt away science and will secure
leadership in the hydrogen fuel economy.
[2612]
According to Right to Food the shocking news is that global hunger increased
yet again this year. The FAO's latest report, The State of Food Insecurity in
the World 2004, reports that hunger has increased to 852 million gravely
undernourished children, women and men, compared to 842 million last year,
despite already warning in 2003 of a "setback in the war against hunger".
Important recent progress in reducing hunger has been made, but the overall trend
is now one of regression, rather than the progressive realization of the right to
food. In fact, it appears that hunger has increased every year since the 1996
World Food Summit.
[2613]
The FAO issued The Voluntary guidelines on the right to food which set out
some practical steps on how Governments can implement the right to food.
[2614]Instead of building on
environment unfriendly biofuel the European Union should support projects in
the desert of northern Africa and the Arabian peninsula. Solar electricity can
supply all Energy needed to get Europe moving on without any harm to nature.
Hydrogen from water hydrolysis will be the solar fuel for the future.
[2619]
The increase in food prices hit at most bread, dairy and meat being biofuel
blamed for an important reason of food shortfall. To reverse this trend
Europabio presented at the World Biofuels Markets in Brussels on 13.03.2008 its
future contribution to sustainable energy.
In its press release the association stresses the importance of a measure in
order to stimulate the transition towards biofuels with high greenhouse gases
savings, and proposes a "stepwise approach"starting with a relatively low
greenhouse gases savings threshold and increasing in time, or a system where a
moderate threshold could be set as basis, coupled with an "incentivisation
system" rewarding additional greenhouse gases savings.
The association claims that in five to seven years biofuel of second generation
using waste such as straw as source could help to reduce the negative effects on
food supply in Europe and third countries, by reducing biofuel of the first
generation which rely on corn and other starch sources. The moratorium on biofuel
of the Friends of the Earth targets this period of first generation biofuels.
[2708]
Environmental growing concerns and rising food prices turn the possible uses of
waste is of great importance to optimise the conversion of wheat, barley and oat
waste into useful materials such as biomass, biogas/biofuel, animal feed and
composting. Arvanitoyannis and colleagues recommend the conversion of wheat
waste into biomass or biogas in view of the energy problems and the extended
pollution of the environment due to release of carbon dioxide compared with other
methods such as incineration. [2620]
Corn and rice waste are of great volume. Arvanitoyannis and Tzerkzou published a
review for most of the waste treatment techniques (composting, pyrolysis,
gasification, combustion), to reduce its volume and/or toxicity and to make the
waste safer for disposal and uses of treated corn and rice waste such as
fertilisers, biomass and biogas/biofuel. [2621]
Fish waste has great impact on the marine environment and EU regulations include
it within the frame of Integrated Coastal Management. Arvanitoyannis and
colleagues 2008 summerise the application of fish waste as animal feed,
biodiesel/biogas, dietic products (chitosan), natural pigments (after
extraction), food-packaging applications (chitosan), cosmetics (collagen), enzyme
isolation, Cr immobilisation, soil fertiliser and moisture maintenance in foods
(hydrolysates). [2622]
According to Arvanitoyannis and colleagues meat waste materials like blood,
hair, tail, horns and bones are a high pollution factor of meat production.
Methods like aerobic and anaerobic composting like windrows, aerated static
piles and bins or aerated chambers are discussed.
According to the authors meat and bone meal are increasingly being used in animal
nutrition as a protein source in place of proteinaceous feeds.
[2622]
The olive oil industry continues to be one of the most heavily polluting ones
among the food industries. Various thermal processes, such as pyrolysis,
combustion and gasification, were investigated. Another crucial issue is the fate
of treated waste. Arvanitoyannis and colleagues 2007 present a review of various
thermal treatment waste methodologies and summarise the uses activated carbon
and briquette production. [2624]
[2625]
Biosorption is a low-cost removal and recover of metals from water. Mack and
colleagues reviewed in 2007 studies related to the recovery of precious
metals such as gold, platinum and palladium by biosorption, especially in
wastewaters. According to the authors common biosorbents are based on
derivatives of chitosan with high surface positive charged amine functional
group content which attract anionic precious metal ions at low pH.
[2626]
According to Macaskie and colleagues 2005 bacterial hydrogenases may help to
remove toxic heavy metals from solution reducing them to insoluble forms.
Pd(II) may thus be cell-bound as Pd(0)-nanoparticles acting as a catalyst in
the remediation of Cr(VI)-contaminated solutions
Hydrogenases can also be used synthetically in the production of bio-hydrogen
from sugary wastes through breakdown of formate produced by fermentation. This
hydrogen may be useful to decompose polychlorinated biphenyls in waste
waters, or as fuel to power E-cells.
The reduction of U(VI) and Se(IV) were highlighted by the authors which stress
the importance of the hydrogenase-3 component of the FHL (formate
hydrogenlyase) complex in Escherichia coli to reduce the radionuclide
c(VII) to its insoluble form c(IV).
Citrobacter sp. accumulates heavy deposits of uranyl phosphate HUO2PO4 and can
accumulate several times their own weight of precipitated metal at the cell
surface. [2627]
[2628]
According to Vignais 2008 hydrogenases are metalloenzymes subdivided into two
classes that contain iron-sulfur clusters and catalyze the reversible reaction to
form hydrogen gas. Nickel and/or iron atoms form their active center of the two
classes, the (NiFe)hydrogenases, or the (FeFe)hydrogenases. A third class of
hydrogenase, characterized by a specific iron-containing cofactor and by the
absence of Fe-S cluster has catalytic properties different from those of (NiFe)-
and (FeFe)hydrogenases. The (NiFe)hydrogenases may further be subdivided into
four subgroups.
[2629]
Mikheenko and colleagues 2008 describe the reducion of palladium Pd(II) to Pd(0)
by Wild-type Desulfovibrio fructosivorans and three hydrogenase-negative
mutants, resulting in deposition of palladium nanoparticles on the cytoplasmic
membrane.
[2630]
According to Yong and colleagues 1997 immobolized Citrobacter sp. bacteria
accumulate heavy metals as cell-bound metal phosphates,
utilizing phosphate released by the enzymatic cleavage of a phosphomonoester
substrate.
The authors describe the bioreactor activity and the Michaelis-Menten kinetics
equation. They stress that nitrate is an inhibitor of the Citrobacter
phosphatase and describe the removal of lanthanum from a nitrate-supplemented
system.
[2631]
Loyd and colleagues 2008 describe bacteria producing precious metal catalysts
from waste streams, ferrite spinels for biomedicine and catalysis, metal
phosphates for environmental remediation and biomedical applications, and
biogenic selenides for a range of optical devices. The authors stress the
importance of biomineralization global biogeochemical cycles, but also provide
new methods for material synthesis that eliminate toxic organic compounds.
[2632]
Deplanche and colleagues 2008 report the microbial precipitation of gold from
acidic leachate (AuIII) from jewelry waste was achieved using Escherichia coli
and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans using hydrogen as the electron donor. Hydrogen
alone or with heat-killed cells did not recover gold from leachates. All gold was
recovered within 2 hours. Gold nanoparticles of 20-50 nm, depending on pH of the
solution, accumulated in the periplasmic space and on the cell surface.
[2633]
Waste electric and electronic equipment, or electronic waste and their
hazardous material contents were assessed by Cui and Zhang 2008. The authors
report that recycling of these waste is driven by economic stimuli of the
recovery of precious metals.
In the last decade pyrometallurgical processing was largely displaced by
hydrometallurgical process for recovery of metals from electronic waste. The
authors discuss these hydrometallurgical processing techniques such as cyanide
leaching, halide leaching, thiourea leaching, and thiosulfate leaching of
precious metals. Bioleaching is used for recovery of precious metals and copper
from ores for many years. However, the authors stress the need of further reseach
on the bioleaching of metals from electronic waste.
[2634]
Humphries and colleagues 2006 describe the reduction of Chromium using resting
cells of Desulfovibrio vulgaris NCIMB 8303 and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans NCIMB
8307 for the hydrogenase-mediated reduction of Pd(II) to Pd(0), forming a hybrid
palladium bionanocatalyst (Bio-Pd(0)) which reduced Cr(VI) to the less
environmentally problematic Cr(III) species.
Recovery of uranium from leakages
[2635]
Macaskie and colleagues 2009 report that E. coli, break down a source of
inositol phosphate (also called phytic acid), from plant waste freeing
phosphate which binds uranium as uranium phosphate precipitate on the
bacterial cells. This procedure turns binding uranium from leakages and
spills economically attractive. Commercial pure inositol phosphate is too
expensive to be used for uranium recovery. The authors stress the importance to
recover uranium from mine run-offs and also from nuclear wastes to ensure
energy security and avoid pollution of the environment.
Nuclear contamination of soils such as Asse 2 in Germany and other nuclear spills
could make biologic recovery important.
[2636]
Macaskie and colleagues 2007 describe Escherichia coli performing anaerobic
hydrogen metabolism using two 'uptake' hydrogenase isoenzymes, hydrogenase -1 and
-2 (Hyd-1 and -2), and fermentative hydrogen production is catalysed by Hyd-3.
This may lead to the production of bio-hydrogen from sugars.
[2637]
Penfold and Macaskie introduced the pUR400 plasmid, containing genes which allow
the sucrose transport into the cell and its metabolism in the Escherichia coli
HD701, a hydrogenase-upregulated strain. The new strain could metabolise sucrose
from waste materials for the production of hydrogen.
[2638]
EuropaBio refers to the European directive on the promotion of the use of energy
from renewable sources (COM 2008 30) where the rules are critical in order to
ensure that the environmental benefits of using biofuels outweigh any possible
environmental disadvantages. At the same time, the Commission is committed to
promoting in all its policies the rapid development of second generation
biofuels. It will closely monitor market developments and their effects on food,
feed, energy and other industrial uses of biomass, and take appropriate action if
needed.
[2639]
EuropaBio says that it is important that the emerging biofuels sector be built
on sound sustainability principles do not stand in the way of food production,
forest protection, soil degradation prevention and sound water supplky.
- The development of a credible and robust certification scheme on an EU or
global basis to guarantee that biofuels are produced in an environmentally
sustainable way.
- The development of a credible and robust certification scheme on an EU
or global basis to guarantee that biofuels are produced in an environmentally
sustainable way.
- The development of sustainability criteria for the biomass used for fuel
production as well as for all (energy) applications.
- The support of a threshold value for greenhouse gas savings,
restrictions on land use to avoid major reduction in carbon stocks and
biodiversity loss from land use change.
Some experts and government leaders are blaming the price fluctuation on
increased biofuel production, which requires a fair amount of agricultural
land. High energy prices and inflation are also seen as culprits.
It is "unacceptable for the export of agro-fuels to pose a threat to the
supply situation of the very people already living in poverty," Development
Minister Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul said prior to the IMF meeting.
"The targets for fuel blends must be put to the test." [2640]
Yet land used for farming agricultural commodities is being converted into
producing biofuel.
German Agriculture Minister Horst Seehofer the corporations which are driving
biofuel to concentrate on Indonesia, Brazil and the corn belt of USA targeting
the heart of all problems. The do not consider to use the other 27 million
square kilometres because it is not profitable to plant there.
The Patzek paper:
According to professor Tad W. Patzek new calculations show that the entire
surface of the Earth cannot create enough additional biomass to replace more than
10% of current fossil fuel use. [2643]
Solar power and compressed natural gas offer more-efficient energy
technologies than planting, fertilizing, harvesting and refining fields of
corn into fuel. [2643]
Professor Patzek recommends to decrease all automotive fuel use in Europe by
up to 6 percent per year in 8 years, while switching to the increasingly
rechargeable hybrid and all-electric cars, progressively driven by
photovoltaic cells. [2644]
Solar electricity and hydrogen is being suggested to replace fossil fuels for
transportation in Europe. The Arabian deserts provide the sunshine and acreage
which does not compete with agriculture. [2614]
[2645]
Cargill and agri-food giant is known for
commercialising soy bean in Brazil, using Santarem in the middle of the Amazon
Regions as shipping port. It has now opened a huge new rapeseed plant in
Montoir, near Saint Nazaire, France, with a capacity to process 600,000 metric
tones of rapeseed per year.
The plant will produce 250,000 metric tones of rapeseed oil per year and
350,000 metric tonnes of protein-rich animal feed. Twenty-five per cent of the
oil is be destined for food use, and the vast majority of this will be used
for French food production. Diester Atlantique esther plant will process the oil to fuel.
The company argues that there is plenty of rapeseed available in France. No
scarcity of oil for food is expected in the French market.
[2646]
The FAO and the EFSA and WHO in a joint seminar in Rome discussed the health
effects of climate change on food and water safety and nutrition in Rome in
October 2008. on the World Food Day, addressing the challenges of climate
change and bioenergy.
According to the organizations, the challenges to nutrition food and water
safety are projected to grow with climate change. The WHO estimates that more
than 60 million people in the eastern part of the WHO European Region live in
absolute poverty which will be hit the most. The global cost of climate change
is projected to be up to 5% of gross domestic product (GDP) by the end of
this century.
Consensus is growing on the necessity to implement effective measures to
reduce risks and adopt strong measures to reduce the effects of climate change
and help people cope with new threats. Such measures should include:
Scientific advice on emerging food safety risks linked to climate-related
changes recent outbreaks, such as the bluetongue disease in Europe, are
increasingly important. Changing patterns and practices of crop production
could lead to the increased use of agrochemicals presenting new risks. The
distribution and spread of plant and animal diseases could also be affected
and must be observed.
The WHO says that health systems should strengthen disease control and health
protection. Action includes ensuring clean water and sanitation, safe and
adequate food, disease surveillance and response, and disaster preparedness;
increasing health professionals' awareness of climate-related diseases;
delivering accurate and timely information to citizens; and advocating to
other sectors reduced emissions that can benefit health.
FAO extended the EMPRES (Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animals
and Plant Pests and Diseases) programme to include food safety to enable the
FAO an early detection of food safety problems and to develop guidance for
managing emerging risks. [2647]
The Italian Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Policy expressed his concern
about the impact of climate change on health, water safety and nutrition in
Italy, resulting from disease vectors entering the country. He cited also that
a 14% drop in precipitation in the last five decades increased water
scarcity. The rise in sea level will entail risks for Italian coastal areas to
floods.
In the European Region, food productivity is projected to decrease in the
Mediterranean area, south-eastern Europe and central Asia, where food security
is at risk. Crop yields could decrease up to 30% in central Asia by the
middle of the 21st century.
Climate change also raises the issue of food safety. Higher temperatures
favour the growth of bacteria in food. Infections with Salmonella spp. rise by
5-10% for each one-degree increase in weekly temperature, at ambient
temperatures above 5 degree Celsius, and in some areas new diseases may arise.
Water stress is projected to increase over central and southern Europe and
central Asia by 2080. Projected reductions in summer water flows of up to 80%
will result in the loss of fresh water and increased potential for contamination.
The quality of coastal water is endangered, putting bathers and seafood eaters at
risk of infection. Only 25% of the rural population in Central Asia have access
to safe water, leading to the diarrhoea-related deaths of 13 500 children every
year.
[2648]
Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel offer only a very small gain in energy
efficiency and their production minimally reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
Research is underway to develop cellulosic biofuels from low value non-food
crops, such as grasses or wood, but these are more difficult to process than
starch or sugar crops and it is not clear that their production will expand
significantly in the near future.
Biofuel production can have negative impacts on nutrition through increased
greenhouse gas emissions, direct effects on health and sanitation and reduced
food availability and associated price effects. Biofuel production can
exacerbate climate change because of the burning of forests to clear land for
bioenergy, water shortages and contamination. Use of sugarcane as a feedstock
is particularly water-intensive.
Increasing prices are leading to the diversion of food and feed crops to
biofuel production. This can reduce food availability and may consign food and
feed production to less productive land, reducing yields.
The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) estimates that rising
bioenergy demand accounted for 30 percent of the increase in weighted average
grain prices between 2000 and 2007. The impact was 39 percent of the real
increase in maize prices. IFPRI projects that in 2020, if biofuel development
proceeds at or exceeds its current pace, calorie availability will decline and
child malnutrition will increase substantially, particularly in Sub-Saharan
Africa.
The WHO stresses that it is important to
advocate to other sectors to reduce emissions to benefit health, environment
and food security. However, no feasible alternative for fossil energy is being
presented by governments and NGO's.
Solar energy, from the desert may be the solution to desalinate water, provide
clean electricity, and deliver hydrogen for CO2-free fuel for transportation.
[2614]
Climate change makes near-surface fish grow
faster
Ronald E. Thresher and
colleagues (2007) studying the the biological impacts of the climate change on
marine species found that six of eight species show significant changes in
growth rates during the last century. In depths
250 m temperatures increases
speeding growth rates. Deep-water (
1,000 m) cool down and species register
a decline in growth during the last century. The authors conclude that marine
life is growing faster nears the surface, but is slowing down in deep water.
The researcher used otolith analysis. [2649]
Otoliths are calcified structures located in the inner ear just
behind the brain that assist fish with balance and hearing. In temperate
waters seasonal growth periods appear on otoliths asalternating opaque and
translucent bands. This pattern looks much like the annual growth rings present
in the trunks of trees. Depending on the number of rings in these structures
the age of each fish can be determined. Similar seasonal bands can also be
found in other hard parts such as scales, fin rays, spines, and vertebrae.
[2650].
However, Hans O. Pörtner and Rainer Knust from the Bremerhavener
Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar- und Marine Research warn that a mismatch
between the demand for oxygen and the capacity of oxygen supply to tissues is
the first mechanism to restrict whole-animal tolerance to thermal extremes. The
researchers studied the eelpout, Zoarces viviparus, a bioindicator fish species
for environmental monitoring from North and Baltic Seas (Helcom). Warm water
prevents an eelpout from absorbing enough oxygen to cope with a changing
environment. Both scientists found out how changes in temperature directly
affect the fish physiology of fish, a link between rising sea temperatures and
declining numbers of fish. They concluded that decrements in aerobic
performance in warming seas will be the first process to cause extinction or
relocation to cooler waters. [2651]
Tobias Wang a zoophysiologist at the University of Aarhus in Denmark does not
believe that the species will go extinct necessarily, but they will move and a
major impact on the distribution of animals will take place. [2652]
[2653]
The Humboldt Squid, Dosidicus gigas, the fiercest of all the cephalopods, and
for reasons unknown to science, they are appearing in huge numbers along the
West Coast, from the Gulf of Mexico to Southeast Alaska, including the
Monterey Bay. The squids are more than 2 metres large and weigh up to 50 kilogram.
According to Louis Zeidberg from the University Stanford these giant squids
had only be seen at the region of the equator. Zeidberg believes that due to
the earth warming the squids now spread northward.
Other scientists , like Zeidberg and Robinson support this theory saying that
this sustained range expansion coincides with changes in climate-linked
oceanographic conditions and a reduction in competing top predators.
[2654]
[2655]
Koeller and colleagues 2009 report that changing water temperatures and
insolation could lead to mismatches between the reproductive cycles of marine
organisms and the algal bloom of the North Atlantic. The shrimps had adapted
their egg hatching times to the phytoplankton blooms which now varies
according to water temperatures. Increasing water temperature causes eggs to
hatch too early and be ahead of the spring bloom. Phytoplankton is needed as
food for the hatching larvae.
According to the authors northern shrimp, also
called pink shrimp, is found in the Gulf
of Maine, on the Scotian Shelf and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, off
Newfoundland and Labrador, on the Flemish Cap, off western Greenland and
Northern Iceland, in the Barents Sea and off Svalbard.
These shrimp populations may decline if temperatures continue to increase unless
the shrimp can adapt. Northern shrimp may serve as an early indicator of the
impact of climate change.
[2656]
Murphy and colleagues 2007 stress that the Scotia Sea ecosystem is important
for the stability of the circumpolar Southern Ocean system. The Scotia Sea is
under the influence of eastward-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
and waters from the Weddell-Scotia Confluence. This results in an advective
flow, eddy and mixing.
The Weddell-Scotia Confluence is the zone separating the waters of the Weddell
Sea from those of the Scotia Sea. It influences the summer
phytoplankton blooms as a result from the mixing of micronutrients into
surface waters. Many species including Antarctic krill, live there and are
food for large seabird and marine mammal populations.
The authors say that krill population dynamics and dispersal are subjected to
varying winter sea ice distribution and surface temperatures, linked to
climate processes such as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation and regional
warming. Another highly interference in the ecology of the region resulted
from the fisch industry.
El Nino-Southern Oscillation reflects the monthly or seasonal
fluctuations in the air pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin,
Australia. It is is associated with floods, droughts, and other disturbances
in a range of locations around the world. These effects, and the irregularity
of this phenomenon interferes in the ecology of the region.
The authors expect that major ecological shifts will take place in the Scotia Sea
ecosystem over the next two to three decades.
[2657]
Wolf and colleagues 2009 examined the influence of ocean climate variability to
the reproduction of the seabird Cassin's Auklet
(Ptychoramphus aleuticus) along 2500 km of the west coast of North America
influenced by the California Current System.
According to this study the northern region presented seasonally variable but
high food for the birds. The south was aseasonal, and low food productivity.
Auklet timing of breeding in the southern population was not significantly
related to local conditions. The breeding of northern populations, however,
was found to be influenced by oceanographic signals preceding high prey
availability.
The authors concluded that Auklets populations in the northern and central
regions of this ecosystem are sensitive to changes in timing and variability
of ocean climate conditions.
[2658]
Blackford and Gilbert 2007 describe a coupled carbonate system-marine
ecosystem-hydrodynamic model. According to the researchers the biological
activity in the benthic, the region near the ground, as well as pelagic, the
deep water, is an important factor in this variability. The acidification of
the region due to increased fluxes of atmospheric CO2 into the marine system is
calculated and shown to exceed, on average, 0.1 pH units over the next 50 years
and result in a total acidification of 0.5 pH units below pre-industrial levels
at atmospheric CO2 concentrations of 1000 ppm.
The potential for measurable changes in biogeochemistry are demonstrated by
simulating the observed inhibition of pelagic nitrification with decreasing pH.
Scientists believe that further decreased pH of the North Sea water will
destroy corals and biological system of the coastal and deeper regions.
EU leaders (Chancellor Angela Merkel) met with the Bush administration on May
2, 2007 and debated co-operation, trade, climate change, energy security
and climate control. Not a word about US signing the Kyoto Protocol was heard.
[2659]
Agreements were made which lead to a stronger and more integrated transatlantic
economy. Particular focus is on removing barriers to trade, cooperation on
regulations, intellectual property, secure trade, financial markets and the
automotive industry, and establishment of a transatlantic economic council to
monitor implementation of economic agreements. This transatlantic economy
council leaves out any cooperation with the third world. The spirit of DOHA
is being buried for sure.
Doha, food and agriculture:
The agreements encourage further cooperation in the areas of agriculture,
sanitary and phyto-sanitary measures, and food safety are directed to increase
traffic between rich countries which can afford complex safety systems. With
the talk of EU-US there can no commitment be seen to bring the Doha trade
talks to a positive conclusion. US as the main cause of the collapse of the
talks last July does not change its attitude.
The outcome of the EC-US talks were mainly directed to develop the trade
between both powers in detriment to environment and directed against the
development of the third world.
[2660]
WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy announced that ministers have failed in their
effort to agree on blueprint agreements in agriculture and industrial products at
the meeting on Geneva from 21-29 July 2008.
Some say that DOHA talks will only start again after elections in USA and in the
European Commission in 2009, for changes in the actual politic.
The DOHA trade talks want to cut agricultural and industrial tariffs and reduce
farm subsidies to benefit developing countries.
The talks stalled on the safeguard barrier allowing developing countries to
temporarily raise tariffs temporarily in order to deal with import surges and
price falls.
Some, leaded by the USA wanted a large import surge needed to trigger the
tariff increase in order to avoid the safeguard being triggered by normal trade
growth, while others, like India and China, however, wanted a lower trigger so
that the safeguard could be easier to use and more useful.
No firm conclusions on action to combat climate change only a vague and
ridiculous statement of Merkel said that progress had been made and that both
sides agreed on the urgency of action, but the US continues to refuse to sign
up to plan to cut greenhouse gasses by 20 per cent by 2020.
The so-called "open skies" deal to remove restrictions on transatlantic
flights was signed demonstrating clearly that there is no commitment to combat
climate change. Increasing air traffic increases the most dangerous CO2
producer because it happens in high altitudes were the atmosphere is most
vulnerable. On the way to a nuclear catastrophe.
President Bush said he would consider Merkel's advice to include Russia in
discussions related to a missile defence systems in Poland and the Czech
Republic which brought back the cold war between Russia and the rest of the
world.
[2661]
The uranium business is going through an enormous boom because of high demand
for military uses and for power plants.
According to Handelsblatt Urenco has today 23% of world production of enriched
Uranium. The company wants to increase it up to 30% in the next 5 years.
Incoming orders have doubled since 2006. Urenco works with high speed
centrifuges to enrich the uranium as the main cause of their success in the
uranium business, compared to less efficient method of gas diffusion used in
France and USA which consume four times more energy. The other three producers
of uranium are: Areva France, USEC U.S. and Tenex Russia.
The Anti-Urenco conference in Almelo looked at the dangers that the depleted
Uranium (DU) and Uranium hehafluorid (UF6) which may be used for military
purpose or is being put to 90% into permanent storage in Russia by Urenco. The
actual booming uranium business is based on the bad politic of the US which
instigates a nuclear armament. [2662]
The agreements between the two powers concerning trade are everything but
directed to a commitment to the Kyoto Protocol, the Doha trade talks and there
are no steps to avoid a nuclear armament.
Global climate change is happening faster than previously believed and its
impact is worse than expected. According to Ogunlade Davidson,the co-chairman
of the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) there
are only eight years left for changes [2663]. Actual activities
of the leaders of the power nations China US and Europe go in the wrong
direction. They should reduce traffic, should spend efforts on solar energy
(great success in Spain, the Sahara could be used to produce energy as
electricity and hydrogen.)
[2664]
The report of
the Global Carbon Project (GCP) concludes that far from slowing down, global
carbon dioxide emissions are rising faster than ever. China (with 1,8 Billions
tons) superseded the US (1.59 Billion Tons) as greatest emitter of greenhouse
CO2 gas. Other developing countries India and Brazil are joining them.
According to the Global Carbon Project the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
rose from 1.8 ppm in 2006 to 2.2 ppm in 2007 and amounts now 383 ppm. The
researchers of GCP stress that since 2000 the increase of CO2 emission has
quadrupled compared with the foregoing decade. The emission growth rate is
still higher than the worst scenario of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change IPCC.
The report says that the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere in 2007 increased about
37 per cent compared with 1750, before of the industrial revolution. The CO2
emission in 2007 10 billion tons, whereas 8.5 billion tons came from fossil
fuels. Deforestation the situation of the ocean reduced their efficiency to bind
CO2 by 5 percent. [2665]
[2666]
Zorita, Stocker and Storch 2008 using the "Monte-Carlo-Simulation" assessed the
climate data of the years between 1880 and 1990, using two statistical
null-hypotheses, autoregressive and long-memory. Following the results of their
statistical research the scientists concluded that the frequency of warm record
years after 1990 could not be an accident influenced by an external driver. They
stress that they could not specify individual responsible factors but is in full
agreement with the results of the IPCC that the increased emission of greenhouse
gases is mainly responsible for the most recent global warming.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services is an agreement of the member states
of the WTO opening the world market to an unrestricted competition. The
states lose most of the means to regulate the market. The European Union has
given its consent to the Agreement in the name of all their member states.
In July 2002, the EU presented its requests for improved market access to WTO
members seeking a reduction in restrictions and expansion of market access
opportunities for the European services industry.
The services sector is the most important economic activity in the EU
accounting for over two thirds of GDP and employment such as the
telecommunication, financial, business, and environmental services sectors,
postal services, distribution, construction and related engineering services,
tourism, news agency services and energy services.
The requests do not seek to dismantle public services, nor to privatize
state-owned companies. No requests are being made on health services or
audiovisual services to any country. EU requests do not touch the access to
water resources and in no way undermine or reduce governments' ability to
regulate pricing, availability and affordability of water supplies.
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is an international trade
agreement that came into effect in 1995 and operates under the umbrella of the
World Trade Organization (WTO).
Negative impacts on universal access to basic
services such as healthcare, education, water and transport. Fundamental
conflict between freeing up trade in services and the right of governments and
communities to regulate companies, a one-sided deal, GATS is primarily about
expanding opportunities for large multinational companies.
Following the end of WWII, the allies decided that prosperous and lasting peace
depended not only on the creation of a stable international political order based
on principles embedded in the United Nations (UN) Charter, but also on the
creation of a stable liberal international economic order. The twin pillars of
the international financial system, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), emerged as the
institutional alternative to the regionalism characteristic of international
financial practices in the post-WWI era.
From ITO to GATT:
The
International Trade Organization (ITO), was negotiated in Havana, Cuba. Political disagreements ultimately spelled the end of the ITO as a formal organization, yet participants considered trade issues important enough to resurrect portions of the ITO charter and transform them into a less formal, free standing trade agreement known as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. (GATT).
During the first twenty odd years of its
existence, members of GATT focused almost entirely on negotiations aimed at reducing tariffs (taxes on imported goods), one of the traditional barriers states enact to protect their markets from import competition. Six rounds of negotiations, through the completion of the Kennedy Round in 1967 introducing an anti-dumping code, accomplished substantial tariff reductions in the manufacturing sector. Finally at 1986-1994(Uruguay Round) the GATT 1994 gave origin to the World Trade Organization.
By the 1970s, with tariffs on most goods substantially reduced, and the world falling into a depression/hyper-inflation cycle due to the twin oil price shocks, states began implementing other non-tariff policies as a way to protect their industries from import competition.
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPs
Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time.
There are two main areas of intellectual property rights:
Copyrights:
The rights of authors of literary and
artistic works (such as books and other writings, musical compositions, paintings, sculpture, computer programs and films) are protected by copyright, for a minimum period of 50years after the death of the author.
Also protected through copyright and related (sometimes referred to as "neighboring") rights are the rights of performers (e.g. actors, singers and musicians), producers of phonograms (sound recordings) and broadcasting organizations. The main social purpose of protection of copyright and related rights is to encourage and reward creative work and computer programs.
Industrial property:
These are signs,
trademarks, geographical indications, design and the creation of technology ( patents). Ideas and knowledge are an increasingly important part of trade. Most of the value of new medicines and other high technology products lies in the amount of invention, innovation, research, design and testing involved.
Creators can be given the right to prevent others from using their inventions, designs or other creations and to use that right to negotiate payment in return for others using them. These are "intellectual property rights".
TRIPSs and Software:
For the last few years the European Patent Office (EPO) has granted more than 30.000 patents on rules of organization and calculation claimed in terms of general-purpose computing equipment, called "programs for computers" in the law of 1973 and "computer-implemented inventions" since 2000.
To legitimate this practice Europe's patent movement is pressing by writing a new law. The basic documentation, starting from the latest news and a short overview are available at http://swpat.ffii.org/index.en.html.
According to US magazine Business Week (2003 December 16th) a group of "left-leaning politicians" upended a directive proposal in such a way that it actually bans software patents, thereby creating an industry-specific exemption which violates the TRIPs treaty and erases billions in intellectual property granted by the EPO.
The author gives Europe a lot of advice, demanding that Europe should set an example by finding a formula that "spurs innovation while safeguarding intellectual property".
The European Patent office has already grated 30 000 patents and problems come up:
Some basic algorithms from software will be patented like:
With a click to next "Top"
Save it on disc
Remember me later
Save before Quit
" Boot directly from CD after insert." Without such an algorithm some users will have trouble in starting the CD depending on the system in use. They are in use in a wide range of software such as:
Catalogues from Warehouses
Information CDs on a companys products for distribution among its customers.
Training's CDs for employees.
Drop Downs are indispensable for an easy surfing
of a program with topics such as Format, Tolls, Edit or File.
Quick access to URLs or specific location in a text.
No user can survive in the jungle of
informations without these algorithms.
Such as
algorithms useful for robotronics.
The European Commission and the US Trade Representative cites in favor of their software patentability proposal:" Proprietary software directly remunerates those who write programs, and it does this by means of "intellectual property", of which patents are one important kind."
The mission of the United States of America to the European Union in the paper "U.S. Comments on the Draft European Parliament Amendments to the Proposed European Union Directive on the Patentability of Computer-Implemented Inventions" to members of the European Parliament says that the US warns Europe falling afoul of the TRIPs treaty.
The US Mission warns that any failure to endorse patentability of software in the directive might adversely impact certain sectors of the economy, because copyright does not protect the functionality of the software, which is of significant value to the owner, and that lack of clarity would lead to a continued need for negotiations with the US in WIPO.
The US Government promotes international harmonization of substantive patent law in order to "strengthen the rights of American intellectual property holders by making it easier to obtain international protection for their inventions".
The software engineers, however, say that the tools they work with and the basics of their ideas are being patented. The originality of creative work and the freedom of the profession will be destroyed by this regulation. So, I think, we have to say good by to a good trade which had given support and satisfaction to a lot of software engineers which will in future seek their fortune in the offices of the software giants.
NAFTA and FTA
The Trade Act 1979 called for study on the possibility of a free trade area around the Americas. Throughout the 1980s, economic problems, including heavy international debt burdens, precluded trade liberalization policies in Mexico. U.S. trade negotiations turned north, and by 1989 a U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) was signed.
The Bush administration in 1990 signed an agreement with the Mexican government and in 1992 Canada joined the negotiations. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into life, entering into force an 1994.
The Clinton administration proposed expanding NAFTA to whole of Latin America in 1994. The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) aims a comprehensive trading regime, reducing both tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade among the thirty four democratic states of North and South America.
Nine areas covered by FTAA:
Agriculture, Market Access
Investment
Government Procurement
Services
Dispute Settlement
Intellectual Property
Competition Policy
Subsidies, Anti-dumping
Countervailing Duties
NAFTA dates back as far as 1956. It just confirmed what has been going on for over 35 years. The U.S. government first sponsored and funded the moving of U.S. factories to Mexico and Central America in 1956. In these regions very low pollution standards still exist. It was supposed to be just a temporary program where the U.S. consumer could enjoy cheaper prices while at the same time help saving the Mexican economy.
The Free Trade in the form it is now being practised bears danger not only to developing countries, it also outbalances the home labour market of US as well all other places of well developed economy moving abroad not only jobs, but also whole agrarian and industrial segments such as soybean moving to Brazil and clothing industry moving to Asia.
A conference from 4-5 November 2005 comprising 34 countries was held in Mar del Plata. No agreement could be achieved to create The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). Opposition to the FTAA was presented by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela. These countries demanded that agarian subsidies of the United States should be stopped.
Alca, an organisation which tries to support the creation of FTAA, pledges to continue the talks on agreemets and proposes to exclude the five counteracting countries from the free trade area.
Trade once was based on trading products and not on moving of production and exporting of decent paid jobs to cheaper labor markets. It is a hard task of WTO to eliminate the unevenness between economic regions looking forward to a fair Free Trade. WTO will play the keys of a humanitarian future world backed by its head office, the UN looking benevolently to NGOS both should behave as partners working on the dissent between human groups.
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD), a multilateral organization composed of members from the industrialized nations looked after the impact on environment caused by the industries on move.
To get pollution under control, the OECD Guiding Principles Concerning the International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies was issued in 1972. According to this Guiding, containing the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP), all member states should cooperate.
Some other trade agreements include environmental protection, such as The Montreal Protocol and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. It includes trade sanctions in case of non-compliance.
In the 1990s, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) for Tuna/Dolphin dissent. The WTO had ruled the US policy of banning imports of tuna from states that used purse fishing techniques to catch tuna, and subsequently kill dolphins, violating the terms of GATT, followed by the rule against US (1998) to ban on shrimp imports caught without Turtle Excluder Devices.
Environmental treaties can be disrupted if WTO rules of trade are used to nullify those environmental enforcement measures under the assumptions that they violate free trade principles. The WTO has therefore the responsibility to look for a future balance between environmental behalves as being part of good trade principles.
The
Declaration of Doha wants to increment the relationship between existing WTO rules and specific trade obligations set out in multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs).
The World Bank Group's mission is to fight poverty and improve the living standards of people in the developing world. It is a development Bank which provides loans, policy advice, technical assistance and knowledge sharing services to low and middle income countries to reduce poverty.
Education is central to development. The Bank has
committed in loans and credits for education.
The World Bank is combating the spread of HIV/AIDS
around the world.
The WB is a leader in the anti-corruption
effort. It is committed to ensuring that the projects it finances are free
from corruption, setting up stringent guidelines and a hotline for corruption complaints.
In 1996, the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) launched the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
Initiative reducing the external debt of the world's 26 poorest, most indebted
countries.
The World Bank is one of the largest funders of
biodiversity projects. The greatest impacts are felt by rural people in
developing countries.
In addition to environmental assessments
and safeguard policies, the Bank's environment strategy focuses on climate
change, forests and water resources. For example, to help to reduce the
effects of global warming launching the new BioCarbon Fund.
The World Bank Group consists of five closely associated institutions, all
owned by member countries that carry ultimate decision-making power. Each
institution plays a distinct role in the mission to fight poverty and improve
living standards for people in the developing world. The term "World Bank
Group" encompasses all five institutions. The term "World Bank" refers
specifically to two of the five, IBRD and IDA.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) lends to developing countries with relatively high per capita incomes.
The International Development Association (IDA) provides
assistance on concessional terms to the poorest developing countries, those
that cannot afford to borrow from the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development.
The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes growth
in developing countries by providing support to the private sector. In
collaboration with other investors, the IFC invests in commercial enterprises
both through loans and equity financing. IFC's mandate is to further economic
development through the private sector.
The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) helps
encourage foreign investment in developing countries by providing guarantees
to foreign investors against loss caused by noncommercial risks, such as
expropriation, currency inconvertibility and transfer restrictions, and war
and civil disturbances.
The International Center for Settlement of Investment
Disputes (ICSID) is an autonomous international organization. However, it has
close links with the World Bank. ICSID provides facilities for the
conciliation and arbitration of disputes between member countries and
investors who qualify as nationals of other member countries.
The IMF is an organization of the United Nations. It was established to
promote international monetary cooperation, exchange stability, and orderly
exchange arrangements; to foster economic growth and high levels of
employment; and to provide temporary financial assistance to countries to help
to ease balance of payments adjustment. The IMF is the central institution of
the international monetary system of international payments and exchange rates
among national currencies that enables business to take place between countries.
The IMF works for global prosperity by promoting the balanced expansion of
world trade, stability of exchange rates, avoidance of competitive
devaluations, and orderly correction of balance of payments problems.
The work of the IMF is of three main types. Surveillance involves the
monitoring of economic and financial developments, and the provision of policy
advice, aimed especially at crisis-prevention. The IMF also lends to countries
with balance of payments difficulties.
IMF in its work of surveillance developed
internationally recognized standards and codes covering government policy making and operations.
The IMF plays a key role as standard setter in this area. Such as the Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS), The Code of Good Practices in Fiscal Transparency, the Code of Good Practices in Monetary and Financial Policies, and the Principles and Guidelines for Insolvency and Creditor Rights Regimes.
A main function of the IMF is to provide loans to countries
experiencing balance-of-payments problems so that they can restore conditions for sustainable economic growth.
The IMF provides technical assistance in its
areas of expertise, which include fiscal policy, monetary policy, and macroeconomic and financial statistics.
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
The OECD groups 30 member countries sharing a commitment to democratic government and the market economy. With active relationships with some 70 other countries, NGOs and civil society, it has a global reach. Best known for its publications and its statistics, its work covers economic and social issues.
Anti-corruption Instruments and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises
The Guidelines seek to promote and facilitate companies' contribution to the fight against corruptionbribery, solicitation of bribes and extortion.
OECD Anti-corruption Activities :The core of the OECD's action against corruption is dedicated to curbing bribery in international transactions.
The European Commission, in close
co-operation with the European Anti-fraud Office (OLAF), Brussels Prosecution Service and French and Dutch police arrested two officials at the Commission's Directorate General for Agriculture on 21th October 2003 alleging corruption and insider trading in the cereal market. They had supplied confidential information with major economic and strategic value for the cereals business Paris and Rotterdam headquarters of two French and Dutch cereals groups. This demonstrates how important the work on anti-corruption and anti-fraud is especially in inter-government and international bodies.
The trade in caviar endangers the population of
sturgeon
[2667]
Important sturgeon basins include the Caspian Sea, the Great Lakes of North
America, the Azov Sea and the Amour River. The number of sturgeons and their
status have been affected by such negative factors as regulation of water flow, decrease in natural spawning sites, poaching and illegal trade in sturgeon caviar and other specimens.
In an attempt to assure sustainability of sturgeon (species in the order Acipenseriformes) the FAO Committee in its Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES Bremen, 3-6 June 1998 presented considerations and recommendations on the "Conservation of Sturgeons"
Important recommendations of the conference of 1998: [2667]
- Encourage scientific research particularly in the Eurasian region to promote the sustainability of sturgeon fisheries through management programmes.
- Curtail the actual illegal fishing and export of sturgeon specimens by improving the enforcement of existing laws regulating fisheries and export in close contact with the CITES Secretariat, ICPO-Interpol and the World Customs Organization
- Enhance the participation of representatives of all agencies responsible for sturgeon fisheries in conservation and sustainable-use programmes for these species.
- Promote regional agreements between range States of sturgeon species aiming at proper management and sustainable utilization of sturgeons
To avoid depletion of sturgeons the Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) publishes export quotas for caviar in an attempt to assure the sustainability of sturgeon.
High levels of poaching and illegal trade in the Caspian Sea accounts for some 90 per cent of world caviar trade. It is believed that for every registered 1,000 tonnes of caviar, there is 12-14,000 tonnes placed on the black market.
The 169 member countries of CITES have set strict conditions for permitting caviar exports. Countries sharing sturgeon stocks must agree amongst themselves on catch and export quotas based on scientific surveys of the stocks.
Importers in the European Union must ensure that all imports are from legal sources, and they must establish registration systems for their domestic processing and repackaging plants. However, many key importing countries have still not put these measures in place.
Further action is needed to regulate trade in caviar, meat and other Sturgeon products and to ensure that fishing levels are sustainable: [2668]
- Standardized methodologies for assessments of stocks and the effectiveness of restocking programmes.
- Market inventories to allow effective control of the domestic caviar and sturgeon meat markets.
- Trans-boundary anti-poaching units
- Databank with reference tissue samples of all sturgeon species in order to assess the legality of exports.
- Universal labelling system for caviar to include re-exports and local production.
Re population of European Riverswith Sturgeon
[2669]
A fish specialist at Berlin's Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Frank Kirschbaum, along with his Polish colleague Jörn Gessner want to repopulate German rivers with the Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhyncus) , which had been threatened with extinction worldwide In 2007 young sturgeons will be set free in the river Oder , a river ending in the Baltic Sea. This fish had been bred in aquariums in the Regional Center for Agriculture and Fishery in the town of Born.
Other rivers such as Elbe and Weser ending in the North Sea, are difficult to repopulate with sturgeon because of weirs blocking the sturgeon off to their spawning ground. There the European variety of sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) had its natural home a century ago. This variety of sturgeon is being bred by Frank Kirschbaum using remnants from a tiny population still living in the Gironde River, near Bordeaux, France.
The sturgeon lives in the sea and migrates upriver only to mate. Pollution from factories and sewage from the cities and weirs caused the population of sturgeons to diminish.
Another variety of sturgeon is Hausen, the German name for the beluga sturgeon ( Huso huso ). It is the largest species of the sturgeons and can weigh up to a ton. It is known because of the Russian caviar. It lives in the Caspian, Black Sea and occasionally in the Adriatic Sea.
[2670]
According to Battin and colleagues 2009
inland waters, such as streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands play
an important role in processing organic carbon and must be integrated in a
global climate strategy. The authors point out that twenty percent of the
continental sequestration are deposited as sediments in rivers and other open
waters, its outgassing contributes carbon to the atmosphere in an amount
equivalent to 13% of annual fossil fuel burning.
In their study the authors describes the carbon transfers between the
land-freshwater boundary, the freshwater-atmosphere boundary, and regional
boundaries within continents. They point to the fact that rivers transport the
carbon which escapes sedimentation or outgassing and modifies carbon accounts of
distant regions.
[2671]
Wetlands and marsh areas bind carbon dioxide, protect the cost and provide
habitat for a variety of species. Based on the results of the study "The
Boundless Carbon Cycle" the importance of the protection of wetlands,
mangroves and free waters become eminent.
Needelman and colleagues 2008 stress that tidal marshes are excellent at
capturing carbon dioxide, because decomposition is very low. Most of the
sequestered carbon remains bound there.
To protect these biotypes sediments of rivers and bays are pumped into washed-out
marshes functioning as carbon sink. The group around Needelman control carbon
content of these restored marshes analysing yearly soil samples. The authors
report that the average carbon content in the restored marsh was 35 kg m-2 while
the reference marsh has only 24 kg m-2 due to a greater bulk density. A surface
carbon accumulation of 1.8 Mg C ha-1 yr-1, resulting from deposition of new
organic material was also found by the authors.
[2672]
Louis A. Kaplan and a group of scientists stress the importance to protect
headwaters tributary streams, intermittent streams, and spring seeps with
forested riparian buffer zones to keep stream and river ecosystem healthy.
Healthy, undisturbed headwaters supply organic matter that contributes to the
growth and productivity of higher organisms, including insects and fish, keep
sediment and pollutants out of the main stream, and protect biodiversity of
flora and fauna.
Forested buffer zones protect these headwaters extending the total area of
aquatic habitat, protect against pollution, slow erosion, keepsthe water cool
for best trout survival.
The authors recommend that smaller watershed be protected, riparian forests be
adopted as a best management practice and that these forested buffers be
preserved and restored along as many reaches as possible.
[2673]
The high seas lie beyond the 200 nautical mile limits that define the extent
of national sovereignty by countries of the world. They cover 64% of the area
of the oceans, and nearly half the surface of the planet.
They are a global commons, under the stewardship of the United Nations Law of
the Sea for the benefit of all nations. However, the sustainability of this
area is endangered.
Cod stocks in the North Sea, Irish Sea and west of Scotland, for example,
remain well below minimum recommended levels.
The International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES), preparing the
Roadmap, calls for a ban of fishing for cod in the North Sea for the fourth year
running.
To avoid further depletion Callum M.Roberts and colleagues brought together
many different kinds of biological, physical and oceanographic data,enabling
to identify hotspots of activity of vulnerable species which include tunas and
billfish, albatrosses, turtles, pinnipeds (seals and sea lions) and penguins.
The Roadmap includes maps of different biogeographical zones and recommend
areas for protection.
In order to reverse the precipitous decline of the life in our oceans and
fulfil the targets set by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the
Roadmap calls on the United Nations to take urgent action to establish and
protect a global network of marine reserves on the high seas.
The Roadmap is available at
http://oceans.greenpeace.org/raw/content/en/documents-reports/roadmap-to-recovery.pdf
[2673]
[2677]
The high seas are the least regulated and least
protected places in the world. Lying beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction, they are governed by the United Nations Law of the Sea. This
convention only came into force in 1994, and has yet to be signed by some of
the most influential nations in the world.
The Law of the Sea enshrines the right of access and use of the high seas for
all. It allows for nations to fish, lay submarine cables and pipelines, or create
other installations such as rigs and even artificial islands. Fishing operations
are insufficiently being monitored, leaving fishing fleets to exploit high seas
resources unhindered.
National sovereignty: The treaty limits US legal authority by granting power
to a United Nations-created agency.
The treaty limits US military activities especially
relevant to anti-terror operations, such as intelligence collection and
submerged travel in coastal waters and the boarding of ships for anti-terror
purposes and limits the sea to "peaceful purposes," which is said to restrict
all military operations (Articles 88 and 301).
The treaty would force the US to pay taxes
to the United Nations, further increasing the UN's power.
The treaty would force US businesses
to turn over economically and militarily relevant technology to other countries.
The treaty paves the way for increased power
of Non-governmental organizations over the US and other nations.
[2674]
Scotland, in its report Progress Report 2004 related to sea fishery analysed
21 species, of which only five stocks were found within safe biological
limits in Scottish waters in 2003. These safe stocks were North Sea Norway
Pout, North Sea Herring, North Sea Haddock, Saithe (VI, IV & IIIa) and West
of Scotland Haddock.
All other stocks were found to be outside safe biological limits. Some of
them, such as Cod, Haddock and Plaice for example, are particularly at risk
(i.e. close to collapse).
[2675]
According to the Report to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds June
2004 aquaculture has become the fastest growing sector in the world food
economy. According to FAO, aquaculture and marinculture will dominate in
the next few decades, increasing the demand for fish meal and oil for feed,
derived predominantly from wild stocks of pelagic fish harvested by
"industrial" fisheries.
Peru, Chile,China and EU are the largest manufacturer of fish meal. Within the
EU, Denmark is the
most significant producer of fish meal and oil.
Fish meal and fish oils are used internationally as feed for farmed animals
and are considered a high quality source of proteins, minerals and vitamins.
Carnivorous fish require more protein than herbivorous fish and the meal is
produced accordingly. China is the largest consumer of fish meals and takes
approximately a quarter of world production.
Many industrial stocks are susceptible to collapse under intensive harvesting
regimes, resulting in a wider ecosystem effect of these fisheries and the
impacts on commercial fish and wildlife dependent on them. Many species of sea
bird are dependent on small fish such as sandeels and anchovies. Intensive
fishery will endanger these sea birds and other species feeding on these small fishes.
[2675]
Alternatives to animal feed produced from fish meal and fish oils are limited
Fishmeal provides a better balanced amino acids, vitamin composition, and
lower cost compared with other protein sources
EU legislation on additives and GM ingredients constraining high levels of
substitution limits the substitutability of fish oils
Fatty acids and
aminoacids profile are limiting barriers to substitution of omega-3 fatty
acids marine oils with plant oils rich in omega-6 fatty acids will weaken the
immune system, making fish more vulnerable to diseases and low oxygen
levels. The report says also that higher plant protein diets may increase
particulate waste and organic pollution.
Soya is the main competitor product to fish meal. Soya is cheaper than fish meal
but nutritionally poorer.
US Farmed tilapia and catfish with unhealthy fatty acids
characteristics
[2676]
According to Floyd H. Chilton and colleagues 2008 farm-reared tilapia has
very low levels of, beneficial omega-3 fatty acids ranging from almost
undetectable to 0,5 g/100g fish, and high levels of long-chain omega-6 fatty
acids such as arachidonic acid, related to pro-inflammatory effects, in
ratios up to 11:1 of omega-6:omega-3.
Farmed trout and Atlantic salmon contained a healthy high concentrations of
omega-3 PUFA at 3 - 4 g/100 g of fish in a ratio of 1:1 with omega-6 content.
The authors stress that changes in the fishing industry have produced fish with
unhealthy fatty acid characteristics such as farmed tilapia which is rich in
arachidonic acid known to have pro-inflammatory effects.
[2675]
- Increased Use of Fish Waste and Discards
- Development of Alternative Protein Sources. Soya modified by biotechnology to comply with aminoacid and fatty acid requirements for fish feed.
In its report "Eating Up The Amazon" Green peace illustrates the soya crisis
through the example of two key global players: Cargill (possibly the largest
private company in the world) in the Amazon and McDonald's (the largest fast
food company in the world) in Europe. Green Peace documents the flow of soy
from ilegally cleared farms, to Cargill and its competitors,
through the ports, processors and meat producers of Europe, and finally into
the Chicken McNuggets sold under the golden arches across the continent.
According to this report Cargill and ADM have been encouraging local farmers
to cut down the rainforest and plant massive soy monocultures.
[2678]
Other organisations are looking at the problem of the land workers which are
often used as slaves in the soy farms.
Ethical trade - or ethical sourcing - means the assumption of responsibility
by a company for the labour and human rights practices within its supply chain.
Ethical sourcing tries to ensure that decent minimum labour standards are met
in the production of the whole range of a company's products. By contrast
fair-trade is primarily concerned with the trading relationship, especially
those involving small producers in the South. Fair-trade ensures that
producers are paid a decent price that at least covers the true costs of
production, despite often serious fluctuations in world commodity prices.
Many consumers will always be prepared to buy special fair-trade products,
while expecting that mainstream products are safely and decently produced.
[2679]
Cargill will support Conservancy efforts in Brazil's Amazon region to increase
awareness and use of agricultural best practices among soya producers and help
promote sustainable economic development in a region that is experiencing
rapid agricultural development. The Conservancy has been working with farmers,
along with governmental and private sector agricultural partners, to encourage
better management practices and conservation opportunities for critical
habitat located on private lands.
[2680]
Milk powder is a basic food in countries
with poor cattle breeding, underdeveloped refrigeration and poor
transportation system. Milk powder has a long self-life even under harsh
condition and may be stored in homes with no refrigerator. Milk powder is
therefore an essential food for poor countries. Aid organisations have also
raised concerns about the depletion of government stockpiles of milk powder.
Fronterra, which controls more than one-third of international dairy product
trade is based in New Zealand. The company will begin online trading in milk
powder in July to take advantage of rapid price movements. The company hopes
to add milk to other commodities such as oil, sugar and coal which are
already selling online successfully.
Changing from contracts up to one year in advance, to daily settlement of
price the company hopes to take full advantage of soaring prices. Price
stability is thus further weakened.
Fronterra expands its production capacity of whole, skim and butter milk
powders, cheddar cheese for the Japanese, Middle East and Philippines markets.
The company will also produce whey cheese, casein, anhydrous milk fat and whey
protein concentrate. According to Frnterr the dairy demand will grow at around
3 per cent a year on the back of sales in markets like China, Latin America
and the Middle East. [2681]
The Nature Conservancy is a leading international, nonprofit organization that
preserves plants, animals and natural communities representing the diversity
of life on Earth by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive. To
date, the Conservancy and its more than one million members have been
responsible for the protection of more than 15 million acres in the United
States and have helped preserve more than 100 million acres in Latin America,
the Caribbean, Asia and the Pacific. [2682]
Cargill, however, argues that it alone cannot ensure sustainable soy development
throughout Brazil.
[2683]
The Amazon forest is menaced by biofuel and food industry. Man made and wild
fires change the vegetation of the region preparing large areas for
agriculture and cattle breeding.
Barlow and Peres 2008 write that a land-atmosphere global climate model
predicts a widespread dieback of Amazonian forest cover through reduced
precipitation. According to the authors, these predictions are controversial,
however, structural and compositional resilience of Amazonian forests may also
have been overestimated, as current vegetation models fail to consider the
potential role of fire in the degradation of forest ecosystems.
In a vegetation survey of the region of the Arapiuns River basin in the
central Brazilian Amazon the authors evaluated the consequences of recurrent
fires. Barlow and peres concluded that episodic wildfires can lead to drastic
changes in forest structure and composition, with cascading shifts in forest
composition following each additional fire event. The authors used also the
results of their survey to evaluate the validity of the savannization paradigm.
Alcohol and vinegar are typical products of fermentation. New fermentation of
sugars of cereals, corn or wheat by bacteria or fungi produces antibiotics,
amino acids such as monosodium glutamate (MSG) threonine, tryptophan, and
lysine, an ingredient of feed industry. Organic acids, such as citric acid
are another important part of biotechnology. [2684]
Enzymes, vitamin C amino acid market of lysine and MSG, opened a production
facility of aminoacids in 2005, situated in Limeira, Brazil, where abundant
main raw materials are available. Amino acids are marketed for beverages,
health foods, supplements and sports nutritional such as glutamine and branch
chain amino acids (valine, leucine and isoleucine) used for maintaining and
building skeletal muscle.
The global market for alternative sweeteners, currently leading growth in the
food additives market, holds considerable potential- growing 8.3 per cent year
on year until 2008 according to market analysts Freedonia - as rising health
concerns drive consumers towards sugar free products and food makers introduce
zero-calorie or low-calorie sugar substitutes into their new product
formulations. Alternative sweeteners like aspartame, xylitol and other
sweeteners are won by fermentation.
Biotechnology can thus bring new fields of activities to developing countries.
Particulate Matter
PM represents a broad class of chemically and physically diverse substances.
Particles can be described by size, formation mechanism, origin, chemical
composition, atmospheric behavior and method of measurement. [2685]
PM can be principally characterized as discrete particles spanning several
orders of magnitude in size, with inhalable particles falling into the
following general size fractions:
- PM10 (generally defined as all particles equal to and less than 10
microns in aerodynamic diameter; particles larger than this are not generally
deposited in the lung)
- PM2.5, also known as fine fraction particles (generally defined as those
particles with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less)
- PM10-2.5, also known as coarse fraction particles (generally defined as
those particles with an aerodynamic diameter greater than 2.5 microns, but
equal to or less than a nominal 10 microns)
- Ultrafine particles generally defined as those less than 0.1 microns.
Fine particles are directly emitted from combustion sources and are also
formed secondarily from gaseous precursors such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, or organic compounds. Fine particles are generally composed of
sulfate, nitrate, chloride and ammonium compounds, organic and elemental
carbon, and metals. Combustion of coal, oil, diesel, gasoline, and wood, as
well as high temperature process sources such as smelters and steel mills,
produce emissions that contribute to fine particle formation.
Fine particles can remain in the atmosphere for days to weeks and travel
through the atmosphere hundreds to thousands of kilometers, while most coarse
particles typically deposit to the earth within minutes to hours and within
tens of kilometers from the emission source. Some scientists have postulated
that ultrafine particles, by virtue of their small size and large surface area
to mass ratio may be especially toxic.
There are studies which suggest that these particles may leave the lung and
travel through the blood to other organs, including the heart. Coarse
particles are typically mechanically generated by crushing or grinding and are
often dominated by resuspended dusts and crustal material from paved or
unpaved roads or from construction, farming, and mining activities.
There is a serious lack of information about the human health and
environmental implications of manufactured nanomaterials, e.g., nanoparticles,
nanotubes, nanowires, fullerene derivatives, and other nanoscale materials.
Environmental and other safety concerns about nanotechnology have been raised
(Dagani, 2003; Masciangoli and Zhang, 2003; Service, 2003).
[2686]
Polluted air, breathed in for weeks, months and sometimes years, can have fatal
consequences, leading to asthma, bronchitis and lung cancer. Prof. Eyal Ben-Dor
and his Ph.D. student Dr. Sandra Chudnovsky, of TAU's Department of Geography
have developed a sensor called "Dust Alert" which contains a spectrophotometer,
monitoring particulates and their chemical composition of air pollution.
[2687]
Emily Fischer and colleagues 2009 found that dust from the Gobi and Taklimakan
deserts in China and Mongolia is routinely present in the air over the western
United States during spring months, adding to the local air pollution.
Dust, grains of sea salt, soot from fossil fuel combustion and smoke from
forest fires form these aerosols measuring 2.5 microns or less. Calcium
particles are a tracer for desert dust.
[2688]
Dr Eric Achterberg studied the Saharan dust storms which is rich in nitrogen,
iron and phosphorus and acts as a fertilizer on the production of plankton in
eastern Atlantic. The author estimates that about 500 million tonnes of this dust
per year alters the climate by partly partly reflecting sunlight, lead to cloud
formation and initiating hurricanes in the Caribbean. The dust fertilizes large
areas of the Atlantic Ocean produces massive plankton blooms. The Saharan dust
may contain soot from fires, varying in chemical and physical properties.
[2689]
Brunekreef and colleagues reported in 2002 that traffic-related air pollution,
especially at the local scale, was related to cardiopulmonary mortality. More
data are provided by the authors in the Netherlands Cohort Study (NLCS-AIR)
on diet and cancer, providing precise estimates of the effects of
traffic-related air pollution by analysing associations with cause-specific
mortality, as well as lung cancer incidence,
In this study the authors assessed the concentrations of black smoke (a simple
marker for soot) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) as indicators of traffic-related
air pollution, as well as nitric oxide (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter higher or = 2.5 microm (PM2.5),
as estimated from measurements of particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter
higher or = 10 microm (PM10).
The authors concluded that relative risks were generally small, however,
long-term average concentrations of black smoke, NO2, and PM2.5 were related to
mortality, and associations of black smoke and NO2 exposure with natural-cause
and respiratory mortality were statistically significant.
[2690]
Krewski and colleagues 2009 published the results of an extended follow-up and
spatial analysis of the American Cancer Society (ACS) Cancer Prevention Study
II (CPS-II) examining the associations between long-term exposure to
particulate air pollution and mortality in large U.S. cities. This study was a
follower of the Particle Epidemiology Reanalysis Project, studying, among
others, the factors affecting health in the Los Angeles and New York City
regions and what exposure time windows may be most critical to the air
pollution-mortality association.
The authors found high exposure contrasts within the Los Angeles region with
air pollution-mortality risks nearly 3 times greater than those reported from
earlier analyses.
The Hazard ratios for mortality associated with exposure to SO2 were highest
in the most recent time window (1 to 5 years). Krewski and colleagues stresses
the importance of identifying critical exposure time windows which could also
be relevant to other data sets.
The authors concluded that long-term exposure to PM2.5 increases mortality in
the general population.
[2691]
Lanone and colleagues 2007 studied the particulate matter for the air in the
subway system of Paris. The authors stress that these particles can deposit in
the lungs and induce recruitment of inflammatory cells, a source of inflammatory
cytokines, oxidants, and matrix metalloproteases.
The authors exposed mice and cultured mice cells to the dust of heavily
traveled subway stations, triggering transient lung inflammation in the mice
cells which produced increased levels of TNFalpha and MIP-2 production that
might cause tissue damage.
The subway system is a potent source of particulate matter emission, including
iron and low levels of endotoxin from bacteria. Such particles were also found
in the air of the subway systems of London and Stockholm.
The authors concluded that dust from the Paris subway system has transient
biological effects, and call for more studies on this matter.
[2692]
The German Ministry released a press statement on the 22.10.2009 calling on the
population to avoid products containing nanotechnology. The statement cites a new
report from Becker and Dubbert 2009 [2693] which
says that it is unknown how many products there are on the market that contain
nano-particles. Consumers can't avoid them because the products are not labeled.
Nanoparticles are increasingly entering into the environmental media, including
the soil, water and air. The lungs are at highest risk because the particles can
pass the cell walls and alter the DNA.
[2694]
Chengyu Jiang, a molecular biologist at the Chinese Academy of Medical
Sciences in Beijing, together with colleagues in 2009 reported concerns about
the toxicity of nanomaterials. Studies found lung injuries caused by
nanoparticle exposure. The authors looked at the toxicity of a class of
nanomaterials Starburst ployamidoamine dendrimers (PAMAMs) widely used in
clinical applications. The authors found that PAMAMs can cause acute lung
injuries, triggering autophagic cell death by deregulating the Akt-TSC2-mTOR
signaling pathway.
jiang looking for a protection of workers and consumers from toxic effects of
nanoparticles, found that the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine reduced lung
injury in mice. Our data provide a molecular explanation for nanoparticle-induced
lung injury, and suggest potential remedies to address the growing concerns of
nanotechnology safety.
[2695]
Liu, Zhang and Slutsky 2009 comment the article of Chengyu Jiang 2009 related to
PAMAs. The authors write that the use of nanoparticles in medicine should not be
discouraged by these risks, but these findings should be seen as a warning that
care has to be taken.
[2696]
Buzea, Pachoco and Robbie 2007 calls on the awareness of the public,
scientists and manufacturers, in relation to nanomaterials toxicity. The
authors stress that nanoparticles from natural sources such as dust and
particles of exhaust fumes were already present in the environment before
industrial production increased the exposure. The authors cite the lung
diseases associated with nanoparticles. Other diseases are included, such as
Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, Crohn's disease, colon cancer increase
the risk of arteriosclerosis, and blood clots, arrhythmia, heart diseases,
and cardiac death.
The authors call for laws and policies for safely manufacturing, industrial and
commercial use, and recycling of nanomaterial.
[2697]
According to Sara Pacheco the aqueous colloidal silica and C60 fullerene, most
common used nanoparticle, induces dose-dependent and time-dependent increases
in DNA damage. This may increase the risk of cancer. The researchers are
clearing whether the nanoparticles are entering the cell and causing DNA
damage directly or if they are acting on the membrane and inducing a cascade
of events resulting in DNA damage.
The authors stress that nanoparticles are widely used such as in food, cosmetics,
paintings. They are so tiny that it is impossible to remove them from the
environment using conventional filtering techniques.
[2698]
Food containing high amounts of fullerene C60, carbon black, or single-walled or
multiwalled nanotubes had no detectable effect on egg and larval survival of
Drosophila melanogaster. However, these nanocarbons adhered extensively to fly
surfaces impairing locomotor function and died. Different nanomaterial
superstructure, or aggregation state may cause that some types of nanoparticles
may be transported by insects.
[2699]
Zhiqiang Hu and colleagues 2008 of the University of Missouri are concerned
with the increasing use of silver nanoparticles in consumer products- The
researchers fear that this material, which is extremely toxic, will be
released into sewage lines, wastewater treatment facilities, and, eventually,
to rivers, streams and lakes where it destroys benign species of bacteria such
as those used for wastewater treatment.
According to the authors silver nanoparticles generate more highly reactive
oxygen species, than do larger forms of silver, inhibiting bacterial growth. The
sludge from wastewater treatment could be affected and soils could be harmed if
they are fertilised with sludge high in silver particles.
[2700]
Singh and colleagues 2009 write that nanomaterals, such as metal nanoparticles,
metal-oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, fullerenes, and fibrous nanomaterials,
damage or interact with DNA, such as chromosomal fragmentation, DNA strand
breakages, point mutations, oxidative DNA adducts and alterations in gene
expression profiles. However, the actual literature is inconclusive on
physico-chemical features of nanomaterials that cause the genotoxicity. More
studies in this fiel are recommended by the authors.
[2701]
Anduja and colleagues 2990 are concerned with the toxicity, long-term side
effects, and the biodegradability of nanomaterials. They highlight the
nanoparticles penetration in lung, the deposition, translocation and
elimination. Also of concern are the effects on the lungs caused by metallic
nanoparticles, titanium dioxide nanoparticles in particular, and carbon nanotubes.
According to the authors nanoparticles generate oxidative stress,
pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic effects and the possible development of
fibrosis and pulmonary emphysema or DNA damage. The authors stress the need of
preventive measures in the workplace and/or in the general population to avoid
the risks imposed by nanomaterials.
[2702]
Helland and colleagues 2008 assessed the voluntary industrial risk assessment
initiatives related to engineered nanomaterial surveying 40 companies working
with nanomaterials in Germany and Switzerland. In this survey 65% did not
perform any risk assessment, and 32,% performed risk assessments sometimes or
always. Use and disposal and unintentional release of nanomaterials were not
controlled. The authors call for risk and safety decision frameworks for the
industry engaged in nanotechnology.
[2703]
In 2007 Primbs and colleagues reported their findings of the emissions of
anthropogenic semivolatile organic compounds from East Asia. Air samples analysed
taken in Okinawa in 2004 showed elevated concentrations of hexachlorobenzene
(HCB), hexachlorcyclohexanes (HCHs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), and
particulate-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) attributed to air
masses from China. Particulate-phase PAH concentrations came along with other
incomplete combustion byproduct concentrations, including elemental mercury
(Hg0), CO, NOx, black carbon, submicrometer aerosols, and SO2.
The authors estimated that the emission of six carcinogenic particulate-phase
PAHs were 1518-4179 metric tons/year for Asia and 778-1728 metric tons/year for
China, respectively. The authors point to the significant emission of carcinogen
particulate-phase PAHs East Asian
[2704]
The trans-Pacific and regional North American atmospheric transport of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pesticides in biomass burning
emissions was measured 2003 at the U.S. West coast and the East coast.
Forest fires in Siberia during air sampling increased PAH,
alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane, and retene concentrations. Regional fires in Oregon
and Washington State resulted in elevated levoglucosan, dacthal, endosulfan, and
PAH concentrations. The authors comparing burned and unburned forest soils found
that fire caused the soil to loose 34-100% of the pesticide mass. The authors
point to the importance of trans-Pacific and regional atmospheric transport of
biomass burning emissions with elevated PAH and pesticide concentrations in
western North America additionally coming from historical deposition of
pesticides in soil and plants.
The term "nanofood" describes food which has been
cultivated, produced, processed or packaged using nanotechnology techniques or
tools, or to which manufactured nanomaterials have been added (Joseph and
Morrison 2006). Examples of nano-ingredients and manufactured nanomaterial
additives include nanoparticles of iron or zinc, and nanocapsules containing
ingredients like Omega 3, or producing stronger flavours and colourings.
In food packaging, nanoparticles are used to
detect bacterial contamination, absorb oxygen or release preservatives to food,
surface coating of bottles for Ketchup or dressings and more.
[2705]
The Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration, (ETC Group), in its
document "Down on the Farm " in November 2004 call on governments to keep the
Precautionary Principle, all food, feed and beverage products (including
nutritional supplements) incorporating manufactured nano particles to remove
from the shelves until such time as regulatory regimes are in place that take
into account the special characteristics of these materials, and until the
products have been shown to be safe.
[2706]
According to Craig Poland and colleagues 2008 carbon nanotubes are found to
have needle-like fibre shape, similar to asbestos. Researchers fear that
carbon nanotubes may increase the risk of mesothelioma, a lung cancer which
was found after exposure to asbestos. In a mice study, long multiwalled
carbon nanotubes resulted in asbestos-like pathogenic reactions known as granulomas.
The authors stress that carbon nanotubes, like those used for the study, are
widely used in many products alleging that they are no mare hazardous than
graphite. The autors call for further research great caution before marketing
those products to avoid long-term harm.
Mesothelioma is a cancer of the mesothelium, the protective sac that covers most
of the body's
internal organs. It can involve lining of lungs, heart, gut. Mesothelioma is
associated with exposure to asbestos. It is not caused by cigarette smokin. It
is fatal, and average survival is about 18 months.
Many naturally occurring and man-made fibers can induce mesothelioma, lung cancer
and/or pulmonary fibrosis. According to Rick Kelly factors of toxicity are the
diameter below 1000 nm, length over 5000 nm, biopersistance by low solubility
and a poor pulmonary clearence. [2707]
[2708]
Friends of the Earth in Europe, the US and Australia made a similar call for
a temporary halt on using nanotechnology in the food chain The authors say
that nanotechnology poses a number of unexamined risks to human health.
The large surface area of nano particles alter their bioavailability and may
be readily absorbed into cells, tissues and organs where they may trigger
toxic effects. Nanofoods are not labelled as such. Consumers who wish to avoid
these food products are not being given this option.
Friends of the Earth also stresses that nanotechnology as a global,
mono-cultural system of agriculture may potentially destroy biological
diversity and various food systems across the world.
Report co-author Georgia Miller, Friends of the Earth Australia
Nanotechnology Project Coordinator, said many of the world's largest food
companies, including Heinz, Nestlé, Unilever and Kraft are currently using and
testing nanotechnology for food processing and packaging. Without increased
federal oversight, these companies could begin sale of these products whenever
they choose.
"There is no legal requirement for manufacturers to label their products that
contain nanomaterials, or to conduct new safety tests," said Miller. "This gives
manufacturers the ability to force-feed untested technology to consumers without
their consent." According to the Report all nanomaterials must therefore be
subject to rigorous nano-specific health and environmental impact assessment and
demonstrated to be safe prior to approval for commercial use in foods,
food-packaging, food contact materials or agricultural applications.
[2709]
The European Commission released on 17.02.08 a voluntary code of conduct for
nanotechnology, stressing that there is a deficit of knowledge of the
environmental and health impacts of nano-objects. According to the code of
conduct the precautionary principle should be applied in order to protect not
only researchers, who will be the first to be in contact with nano-objects, but
also professionals, consumers, citizens and the environment in the course of
nanosciences and nanotechnologies research activities.
[2710]
EFSA is launching a public consultation on its draft scientific opinion on the
Potential Risks Arising from Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies on Food and Feed
safety and the Environment. Deadline is 01/12/2008. EFSA's opinion will help
inform consideration of any future EU measures in relation to nanotechnologies
in the food and feed area.
[2711]
Current legislation covers in principle the potential health, safety and
environmental risks in relation to nanomaterials. The protection of health,
safety and the environment needs mostly to be enhanced by improving
implementation of current legislation. The Commission and EU Agencies will
therefore in the first place review current documents that support
implementation, such as implementing legislation, standards and technical
guidance with regard to their applicability and appropriateness to nanomaterials.
Commission's Joint Research Centre. Activities are coordinated with
international partners and stakeholders in the appropriate fora, such as the
OECD and ISO.
Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)[2712]
There are no provisions in REACH referring explicitly to nanomaterials. However,
nanomaterials are covered by the "substance" definition in REACH. Under REACH,
manufacturers and importers will have to submit a registration dossier for
substances that they manufacture or import at or above 1 tonne per year. At or
above 10 tonnes/year, the registrant will be obliged to produce a chemical safety
report. Furthermore, if deemed necessary for the evaluation of the substance the
European Chemicals Agency can require any information on the substance,
independent of the minimum information requirements of REACH When an existing
chemical substance, already placed on the market as bulk substance, is introduced
on the market in a nanomaterial form (nanoform), the registration dossier will
have to be updated to include specific properties of the nanoform of that
substance. The additional information, including different classification and
labelling of the nanoform and additional risk management measures, will need to
be included in the registration dossier. The risk
management measures and operational conditions will have to be communicated to
the supply chain.
In order to address the specific properties, hazards and risks associated with
nanomaterials, additional testing or information may be required. To determine
specific hazards associated with nanomaterials, current test guidelines may need
to be modified. Until specific test guidelines for nanomaterials exist, testing
will have to be carried out according to already existing guidelines. The
Commission will carefully monitor the implementation of REACH with respect to
nanomaterials. [2710]
[2713]
Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology
have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human health and
safety risks associated with nanotechnology. Further, there is significant
debate about who is responsible for the regulation of nanotechnology.
Bowman and Hodge 2006 point to the fact that there are gaps between different
the work of different regulatory agencies. The authors stress that unlike
earlier technologies, the impacts of nanotechnology should to be analysed
before it spreads on market. [2714]
[2715]
The CEF Panel evaluates substances intended for use in materials in contact
with food according to Articles 8 and 9 of the Regulation (EC) No.1935/2004 on
materials and articles intended to come into contact with foodstuffs.
Engineered nanomaterials (ENM) that are deliberately introduced into the food
chain, including ingredients and additives, fertilizers and pesticides were
discussed by the Panel of the European Food Safety Agency.
In a publication
of 16 December 2008 the use of titanium nitride (TiN) nanoparticles Cas Nr.
25583-20-4 in a material used to make polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic
drinks bottles no toxicological concern was found, and the way is open for its
allowance in the European Union. Imposed restriction: Only to be used in PET
bottles up to 20 mg/kg.
This opens the door for a flood of approval of nanomaterials in foodstuffs.
Titanium nitride (TiN), nanoparticles, is intended to be used as an additive in
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles up to 20 mg/kg. The final product is
intended to come into contact with all types of liquid foodstuffs for typical
hot fill/pasteurization and/or long time storage at room temperature.
The three mentioned substances groups were included in the SCF List 3 which
contain substances for which an ADI or a TDI could not be established, but
where the present use could be accepted.
The Panel classifies substances according to the “SCF list” since in the past the
evaluation of substances used in food contact materials was undertaken by the
Scientific Committee on Food (SCF). The definitions of the various SCF lists
and the abbreviations used are given in the appendix.
See:
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/Scientific_Opinion/cef_op_ej888-890_21stlist_en.pdf?ssbinary=true
[2716]
In a co-operation with the OECD the Allianz report notes that in respect to
hazards, there is enough evidence to suggest that exposure to nanoparticles,
particularly to those insoluble in water, should be minimised as a precaution.
[2715]
These substances are members of a group of substances used as polymer
production aids in emulsion polymerisation, in a wide range of polymers and
copolymers (mainly poly(vinyl chloride) PVC, polystyrene, polyacrylates and
poly(vinyl acetate), at concentrations of 1-4%.
Sulphosuccinic acid, alkyl (C4-C20) or cyclohexyl diesters, sodium salts were
considered as safe under the restriction of 5 mg/kg food.
Finished materials are intended to come into contact with all types of food
under room temperature conditions. Evaluation:A significant part of the
emulsifier (
70%) will remain in the final polymer and may migrate into
food in contact with the plastic material.
Sulphosuccinic
acid monoalkyl (C10-C16) polyethyleneglycol esters, sodium salts are stable under
the intended processing conditions (up to 200
). These substances are
soluble in water and are partly eliminated during the process. However, as shown
in experiments for determination of residual content in PVC materials, a
significant part of the emulsifier (20%) remains in the final polymer and
may migrate into food in contact with the plastic material. These substances are
considered as safe under the restriction of 2 mg/kg food.
[2717]
The Institute for Food and Agricultural Standards of the Michigan State
University proposed international standards for nanotechnology. They also propose
that NGOs and other citizen groups should participate in the development of these
standards. The international commitment to nanotechnology makes the creation of
international standardisation of the matter imperious.
[2718]
King Abdullah received an honorary doctorate degree from King Saud University
(KSU) in Riyadh in 21.10.08, and emphasized his support for nano technology. The
King wants to hear daily news on the developments in the field of
nanotechnology. King Abdullah had approved the establishment of an institute for
nano technology at KSU. According to the report nano technology sales in the
world are expected to reach USD 3 trillion by 2015.
[2719]
The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI)
provides a multi-agency framework to ensure U.S. Leadrership in nanotechnology that will be essential to improve human
health, economic well being and national security. The initiative offers wide
spread informations about the nanomaterials. http//:www.nano.gov.
Nanoparticles
Nanostructures, their size, and material into which they may be formed,
indicating the type of application in which they may be used [2799] [2719]:
- Clusters, nanocrystals, quantum dots (Radius: 1-10 nm. Used in
insulators, semiconductors, metals, magnetic materials)
- Other nanoparticles (Radius: 1-100 nm. Used as ceramic oxides)
- Nanowires( Diameter: 1-100 nm. Used as metals, semiconductors, oxides, sulfides, nitrides)
- Nanotubes (Diameter: 1-100 nm. Used as Carbon, including fullerenes, layered chalcogenides)
Adapted from J.Jortner and C.N.R.Rao, Pure Appl Chem 74(9), 1491-1506, 2002. [2799]
Barbara Karn leads researches of the US EPA which address implications
including studies on the potential toxicity of quantum dots, carbon
nanotubes, iron oxide nanoparticles; research on the environmental fate and
transport of carbon nanotubes and fullerenes; and studies on how
nanotechnology affects material flows. [2800]
Potentially harmful effects of nanotechnology might arise as a result of the
nature of the nanoparticles themselves, the characteristics of the products
made from them, or aspects of the manufacturing process involved.
The large surface area, crystalline structure, and reactivity of some
nanoparticles may facilitate transport in the environment or lead to harm
because of their interactions with cellular material. In the case of
nanomaterials, size matters, and could facilitate and exacerbate any harmful
effects caused by the composition of the material.
Some research has been done on inhalation exposure to nanoparticles. A related
research area that EPA research is addressing deals with the health effects of
ultrafine (less than 100 nm) particles on lungs.
However, the current research on ultrafine particles may not be applicable to
manufactured nanoparticles because the ultrafine materials studied are neither
a consistent size nor pure in chemical or structural composition. Exposure may
occur via the dermal and ingestion, as well as inhalation routes. It is
unknown whether nanomaterials bioaccumulate and,thereby, pose human health and
environmental risks because of this potential property.
[2720]
Kerstin Hund-Rinke and Markus Simon from the
Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology stress the
potential impacts on the environment as large amounts of nanoparticles may
reach the environment. According to Hund-Rinke it is unknown if size,
crystalline form, porosity or the combination of all these structures may be
responsible for the toxicity. For instance, nanoparticles of titanium dioxide
with 25 nanometres presented inhibition of the growth of algae, particles
with greater size then that does not present such toxicity.
The researchers studied the ecotoxic effect of photocatalytic active
nanoparticles (TiO2) on algae and Daphnids (8 pp), concluding that it is
principally possible to determine the ecotoxicity of (photocatalytic)
nanoparticles using methods comparable to the procedures applied for assessing
soluble chemicals. The ecotoxicity depends on the test organisms and their
physiology. The photocatalytic activity of nanoparticles lasts for a relevant
period of time. Therefore, pre-illumination may be sufficient to detect a
photocatalytic activity even by using test organisms which are not suitable
for application in the pre-illumination-phase.
Hund-Rinke also stresses the problem of platinum being released as nano
particulates from tree-way catalysts using platinum palladium and rhodium
alloys, and its possible toxic reactions in the ecosystem.
[2721]
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are generally concerned with materials that are
10 - 100 nm in size or less (molecular or atomic level). A nanometre (nm) is
one-billionth of a metre. At this size range, the behaviour of materials
begins to change, particles are so small, they disperse evenly in products.
Nanoparticles are already on sale for use in food packaging and the
manufacture of plastic food containers. Synthetic nanoparticles of lycopene are
an example of nanoparticles that have been developed and tested, and are
accepted as GRAS-affirmed by the FDA for use in food in the USA. [2721]
Embedding vitamin C, vitamin E or Q10 in nano micelles, hydrophilic and
lipophilic substances can be integrated in the same system. It opens the way
for some new functional foods like water and other beverages containing CoQ10
with appealing appearance to address fat reduction and alpha-lipoic acid for
satiety targeting visceral fat. [2801]
The study was made by Dr Ute Gola of the Institute for Nutrition and
Prevention in Berlin, Germany, and Prof Dr Biesalski, head of the department
of biological chemistry and nutrition in Hohnheim, Germany. Christine from
Foresight, however, calls to the attention that there are no claims for
weight reduction for CoQ10 been related. [2802]
Aquanova presents antioxidant nano structured micelles for vitamin C and
vitamin E, introduce antioxidants into food and beverage products easily and
effectively.Antioxidant system for essential oils and flavours are already
presented. [2803]
[2804]
The paper begins describes what nanotechnology is, what opportunities and
challenges exist regarding nanotechnology and the environment, potential
environmental benefits of nanotechnology. The paper provides an extensive
review of research needs for both environmental applications and implications
of nanotechnology.
Some regulations concerning nano products in food products are contained in
European Regulation (EC ) No.178/2002 [2805] The Institute of Food
Science and Technology (IFST) calls for labelling requirements and a separate
evaluetion as novel food.
Should nanoforms of materials such as TiO or SiO be employed in
edible coatings on foods, then there may be additional risk factors triggered
by their ingestion.
According to IFS additives such as SiO and TIO and nano-sized
clay particles are also available for use in food packaging material and food
containers. A variety of other nanoparticles are being considered for use in
surface coatings. The bioavailability is likely to be enhanced, and the
toxicological data for the macroscopic form may no longer be valid, because
the small size of these particles may allow them to reach regions within cells
or tissue that normal macroscopic particles of the same composition could not
reach. An appropriate pre-market safety evaluation of nano products should be
required even if the compound is already food-use approved. [2721]
Nanoparticles, ranging from 2 - 10 atoms, less than 100 nanometres, can
potentially invade body systems. Studies to date show that the human body's
normal defence mechanisms treat nanoparticles like micro-organisms but
nanoparticles could link together to form fibres that are too large to be
engulfed by macrophages.
Developments in gene therapies, targeted drug-delivery systems,
microencapsulation in food technology and other science fields rely on
techniques that manipulate nanoparticles so that they can bypass the human
body's defence mechanisms, but also unwanted nanoparticles could also penetrate
into cells or cross natural barriers.
The UK's Medicine and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency MRHA stoped its
participation in the British Standards Institute's Nanotechnology
Standardisation Committee arguing that existing regulatory frameworks and trial
safety procedures were sufficient to cover the use of nanotechnologies in
medicines and medical devices.
MRHA says that one of the conclusions of the many nanotoxicology reviews, is
that there isn't yet enough data to derive systematic rules that govern
toxicological characterisation of the nanotechnology products. Another is that
there might be new hazards associated with loose nanoparticles. The main
conclusion that MHRA has come to after reviewing this enormous amount of data
was: there is currently no evidence for the actual existence of any such new
hazard. [2723]
The MHRA members agree that the mechanisms of toxicity seen with healthcare
nanoparticles are not unique. The review on The Toxicology of Nanoparticles
Used in Healthcare Products does not currently indicate the need for
nanotechnology specific regulations. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in
the United States has also concluded that the current requirements for safety
testing of medicinal products is sufficiently rigorous and are currently
believed to be adequate. MHRA concludes, however, if research identifies
toxicological risks that are unique to nanomaterials, additional testing
requirements may be necessary. [2724]
According to a report summarising
the workshop discussions, held in October 2006, among international nanotech
and LCA experts the impact on environment and human health can be accessed
using Life Cycle Assessment.
Life Cycle Assessment is a method for estimating and
assessing the resource
usage and environmental impacts attributable to the entire life cycle of a
product, from raw material extraction and acquisition, through energy and
material production and manufacturing, to use and end-of-life treatment and
final disposal (ISO 14040:2006). The environmental and resource impacts include
climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, toxicological stress on human
health and ecosystems, the depletion of resources, water use and many others.
The report points out, that confidentiality is also referred to as a major
problem, as existing Life Cycle Assessment data is often proprietary data of
companies and even the exact composition of nanomaterials is strictly
confidential.
USA, trying to boost farming started many projects. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory claims that the production of ethanol from US corn has already
reached the volume of the Brazilian production. [2726]
The City of Portland, Oregon issued the Biofuel Requirements act, demanding
that in the City of Portland, on and after July 1, 2007 all diesel fuel shall
contain 5% biodiesel (B5 fuel) and on and after September 16, 2007, all
gasoline shall contain a minimum blend of 10% ethanol (E10 fuel), Biodiesel
for this act is produced from used cooking oil and/or feedstock from the
Genera Brassica (rape, mustard), Caina, Helianthus (sunflower) or Carthamus
(safflower).
Palmoil is excluded from this issue. [2727]
[2728]
Tad Patzek, from the University of California looks at
the thermodynamics of the corn-ethanol biofuel cycle in 2004. He concludes that the minimum
cumulative exergy consumption in restoring the environment polluted and
depleted by the industrial corn-ethanol cycle is over 7 times higher than the
maximum shaft work of a car engine burning the cycle's ethanol.
The industrial corn cycle is not renewable, and is unsustainable by a wide margin.
The limiting factors, nutrient-rich humus and water that carries the dissolved nutrients to
plant roots are augmented by chemicals obtained in the linear, irreversible fossil fuel-based
processes. Corn yields demand continuously increases in fertilization rate of corn fields.
Patzek writes that the annual corn-ethanol biofuel production is a human
assault on geologic processes and the geologic time scale.
Ethanol became the salvation for Midwest corn growers struggling to make ends
meet with a saturated market and slumping prices. U.S. ethanol production is
rising dramatically, thanks to generous corn subsidies, American soils have
been depleted for like 50 years or something. The only reason we can get any
good yeilds out of them is through massive fertilization. Fertilizer that we
synthesize using gasoline. It's very inefficient to use the new bio-fuels, as
they ultimately require more fossil fuels to produce than enrgy they yeilds. [2729]
Sugar cane grows in regions with
abundant rain all the year round growing season, cheap land and not expensive
labour. The product can be sold as sugar or as alcohol according to the demands of the market.
[2729]
Also there is great potential in "enzimatic hydrolysis" for efficiency
improvement of the conversion The biomass wastes contain cellulose,
hemi-cellulose and lignin. Acids or enzymes are used to break down the
cellulose and hemi-cellulose.into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into
ethanol. The lignin is more resistant to these pre-treatment processes and is
therefore burned to produce energy for the system. [2730]
[2731]
Biofuels are currently manufactured from food crops including corn, wheat,
sugar, cassava, sweet sorghum, and oilseeds.The Chinese government fears
shortage of food in these items due to biofuel demand which could increase
food prices and issued a moratorium on these sources.
China produces about one million tons of Ethanol annually from three million
tons of corn. Non-food crops, such as cassava and drought-tolerant sweet
sorghum will now have to be used for the production of bio-ethanol. Due to the
great demand, China imports cassava from Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia.
[2732]
Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from almost any organic matter, including
agricultural waste, grasses, sewage, sludge, switchgrass, plant stalks, trees
and straw. Cellulose and lignin cannot be digested by humans, the production of
cellulose does not compete with the production of food. Transforming them into
ethanol using efficient and cost effective hemi(cellulase) enzymes or other
processes might provide as much as 30% of the current fuel consumption in the
US and probably similar figures in other oil-importing regions like China or
Europe.
There are two ways to produce ethanol from cellulose:
- Cellulolysis processes which consist of hydrolysis on pretreated
lignocellulosic materials followed by fermentation and distillation.
- Gasification that transforms the linocellulosic raw material into gaseous
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. They are then fed into a special kind of
fermenter or to a catalyst bed.
They both include fermentation and distillation as final steps.
[2733]
Hans Van Leeuwen, developed a process that can convert corn fiber, a
byproduct of the wet milling process that produces corn syrup, into fuel-grade
ethanol. It uses a mould which produces enzymes that break down corn fibre
into simple sugars which can be fermented into ethanol. This process may also
be applied to distillers dried grains, a byproduct of the dry milling process
that is typically used to convert corn kernels into ethanol.
According to the authors ethanol is produced grinding corn kernels and adding
water and enzymes. The enzymes break the starches into sugars. The sugars are
fermented with yeasts to produce ethanol which is distilled.
The authors say that for every gallon alcohol produced there are six gallons
of leftovers called stillage. The solids are removed by centrifugation, which
may be dried and sold as cattle feed as distillers dried grains.
Half of the remaining liquid, known as thin stillage is used for next
fermentation and the other half is evaporated and blended with distillers dried
grains to produce distillers dried grains with solubles. The researchers used a
fungus, Rhizopus microsporus, to remove about 80 per cent of organic material and
the solids so the whole thin silage may be used in the next fermentation batch.
The fungus which grows during the process is rich in protein, certain essential
amino acids and other nutrients and may be added to distillers dried grains as
feed for hogs and chicken.This process improves alcohol yield and reduces energy
needed in the process.
[2734]
Dr.James Palmer, of the Louisiana Tech University, developed a method to enclose
enzymes used to convert cellulosic biomass (wood, grass, stalks, etc.) to sugars
which may be converted to ethanol biofuel. The enzymes which break down cellulose
are very expensive. Enclosing them in nanoconstructs makes them reusable for
several times. The price of the process may thus be substantially reduced.
According to the authors cellulosic ethanol does not compete with food production
and may decrease greenhouse gas emissions by 86 percent, while corn ethanol only
reduce greenhouse gases only by 19 percent, compared with fossil fuels.
[2735]
ESRU at the University of Strathclyde made a survey of
biofuel using setaside land in UK.
The paper stresses limitations.
Bioethanol produced from Sugar beet results in a much greater yield, but
should not be used as mono culture. When only one type of crop is grow on the
same land for successive years then this crop will become very susceptible to
certain pests and diseases as well as causing the depletion of certain
minerals in the soil. The net result of these effects is a requirement for
increased use of pesticides and fertilizers which due to their production
process results in CO2 emissions. Sugar Beet yields are considerably higher
than that of wheat and so fertilizer requirements are likely to be higher
also, again causing increased emissions.
U.S. corn ethanol neglects the problem of monoculture. Depletion of the region
and environmental destruction of the Gulf Region will be the result of U.S.
ethanol agrarian politics.
ESRU suggests crop rotation to address this problem, stressing that it is
necessary to use at least two different crops for producing bioethanol. If
rapeseed, which is the crop used to produce biodiesel, is also added in then
this will also help the problem. [2736]
ESRU says that total use of the 644.000 hectares of setaside land in UK could
supply 9,7% by volume and 5,5% by energy of fuel using sugar beet / wheat 50:50.
| |
Yields |
Ethanol |
energy content |
|---|
| |
Tonnes/hectare |
m /Tonne |
|
| Wheat |
7,74 |
0,336 |
Ethanol = 21,1 MJ/L |
| Sugar Beet |
53,30 |
0,108 |
Petrol = 31,5 MJ/L |
| Rape seed |
3,00 |
0,400 |
Rape oil = 35,6 MJ/L |
| |
|
|
Diesel= 37,9 MJ/L |
| Corn |
2,00 |
|
[2736] |
Biofuel leading to food-shortage
[2737]
According to the United States Department of Agriculture the maize consume 2006
increased by 20 Million Tonnes compared with foregoing year. 14 Million Tonnes
were used for the production of ethanol, only 6 Million Tonnes were used as
food. Cereals which are used to produce alcohol has tripled in five years from
2001. Filling a tank of 120 liters of a Landrower could feed 26 persons for one
year. More than half of the harvest of maize from South Dakota is being
transformed in alcohol.
A reduction of US maize export which is two third of world export amount, could
seriously hamper the cattle and poultry industry in Japan, Egypt and Mexico.
Biofuel from food crops are being produced in Brazil (alcohol from sugar cane),
USA ( alcohol from maize) and Europe (biodiesel from rape). Sugar price
doubled in Brazil since 2004.
The production of alcohol in China from maize in India from sugar cane,
Thailand from cassava is being pushed by the government. Malaysia and Indonesia
invest in oilplants for biodiesel. This will lead to a shortage of food and
increasing prices.
On account of that it is irresponsible from the leaders of the nations which
will meat at the G-8 Summit in Germany try to increase world traffic and global
increase of energy consumption.
[2738]
The UK government 2008 report on biofuels says that this form of renewable
energy is an expensive and ineffective way to cut greenhouse gas emissions,
and is likely to cause increasing food prices and insecurity in Europe. This
assertion is backed by the United Nations FAO which states that biofuel
production rises food prices and threatens food security in developing countries.
The report say that the arable land in the EU is not sufficient to meet the
target set by the EU Biofuels Directive. Imports will therefore be needed,
increase environmental pressures in developingt countries, such as happening
with palm oil is already happening in Malaysia and Indonesia.
The production of biofuels affects water use, water quality, waste management,
and soil fertility, overuse of chemicals, preparing new land release CO2 and
increase the risk of nitrate leaching.
[2739]
Minerals and Energy Minister Buyelwa Sonjica announced that South Africa
revised the initial proposal of 4,5% down to 2% biofuels of its total petrol
production by 2013. Maize will be excluded from biofuelproduction because it
is a staple food and food security concerns demand the move to soya beans,
canola, sunflower and sugar cane and sugar beet for ethanol.
South Africa produces liquid fuels by synthesis from coal and natural gas
making 36% of fuels demand. Imported crude oil covers 64%.
[2740]
The Association, however, presented a paper calling biofuel a unique
opportunity for South Africa and Sub Saharan Africa to:
a) attract significant investments into rural areas;
b) promote agricultural development at a scale never before seen;
c) materially provide for import substitution of oil with subsequent savings
for the national fiscus in many poor developing countries;
d) providing ethanol exports primarily to the north, and
e) overcoming the trade distorting effects that Africa and the developing
world have faced for years because of subsidised agricultural commodities.
[2741]
The overriding conclusion of the Blottnitz report [2741] and the IFEU report [2742] had similar findings
and concluded that for energy balances was that the use of bio-ethanol in
place of conventional fuels or as an additive leads to a net gain, whereas
most of the other parameters , such as Acidification, human toxicity and
ecological toxicity impacts, mainly occurring during the harvesting and
processing of the biomass are in favour of fossil fuels.
Blottnitz says the potential of biofuels production is limited. While the
annual produced biomass in the world could theoretically provide our total
fuel demand, there are restrictions from other competing land use (food
production, natural conservation, sustainable agriculture) and usages
(biomass for material uses, source of bioenergy for power and heat
production). In this way, competing land use alone reduces the usable
potential in Germany to just a few percent of the fuel market. Such
limitations do not apply to the usage of biomass from waste material.
[2743]
Searchinger and colleagues 2009 stress that the climate accounting treats all
bioenergy as carbon neutral. This flaw was also included climate regulations
2003/87 of the EU [2744] and the The American Clean Energy and
Security Act of 2009 [2745]. The authors point
to the fact that these regulations count biofuel as 100% reduction, and do not
count CO2 emitted from tailpipes and smokestacks when bioenergy is being used,
and also does not consider the CO2 emission from land use, burning of wood and
energy crops. This flaw favours deforestation
The authors say that counting bioenergy from any biomass as carbon neutral,
so as handled by the climate accounting, large-scale land conversion for
bioenergy is favoured regardless of the actual net emissions. This will lead
to further increase of greenhouse gases. The area covered by fuel crops will
be higher that the area used for food crops by the end of this century, say
the authors.
Increase of biofuel crop can only take place by deforestation, with the loss of
tress which are important carbon sinks. On the other fuel crops may use the area
of food crops, increasing the use of fertiliser ammonium nitrate which decomposes
in the soil releasing nitrous oxide N2O which is a stronger greenhouse gas as
CO2. To avoid such undesirable development, the authors suggest global rules to
protect forests and to avoid overfertilisation. Should this not be introduced all
over the globe the climate will breakdown, say the authors.
[2746]
Biofuel, such as ethanol and biodiesel compete with food crops resulting in
rising prices of food staples. Robert Service points to an additional problem
of biofuel crops which may pinch water supplies and worsen water pollution.
The already serious shortage of water will even be worsened by a wide shift
from crude oil to biofuel.
Biofuels rise food prices, do more harm to the climate than good
and it may harm engines
European plans to provide 20 per cent of EU energy from renewable sources -
which are contained in a leaked draft of the EU renewable energy directive
[2747]. But, the environmental campaign group
warned that plans for a huge increase in agro-fuels seriously undermine the
potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help the world's poor.
A leak of the draft directive says that 20 per cent of EU energy must come
from renewable sources by 2020. And, as part of this strategy, all transport
fuels must contain at least 10 per cent agro-fuels by 2020. Friends of the
Earth criticises:
- Failure to address the impact of agro-fuels on the environment and food
security.
- Not sufficiently addressing the knock-on effects of pushing up food
prices.
- Not preventing agro-fuel production from pushing other farming
activities (e.g. cattle ranching or other crops) into rainforests or other
important eco-systems.
- Providing no criteria to protect people in developing countries from the
negative impacts of agro-fuel production.
- Ignoring important eco-systems such as wildlife-rich savannahs, which
are threatened (for example, the Brazilian Cerrado).
- Preventing EU member states from introducing stronger criteria for more
robust bio-fuel production measures at a national level. [2748]
Friends of the Earth say that the Renewable Transport Fuels Obligation (RTFO)
- due to come into force should be put on hold. The RTFO will require all
petrol sold in the UK to contain a percentage of biofuels in order to meet EU
targets to increase the use of alternative fuels for road transport.
A growing number of academics, institutions and non-government organisations
are calling for the EU to drop its 10 per cent target for biofuels. There are
major concerns that biofuels may do more harm to the climate than good. Recent
studies have shown that the carbon savings from biofuels are often negligible
and that the expansion of biofuel production is leading to rainforest
destruction, rising food prices and human rights violations. [2749]
According to Mike Childs from friends of the Earth the EU must listen to the
growing warnings about this largely unsustainable fuel-source and scrap its
damaging agro-fuels plans. Instead it should focus on forcing motor companies
to produce more fuel-efficient vehicles, and strategies to encourage people
out of their cars. [2750]
In Germany a 10 percent addition of alcohol may damage the engine of cars
which are not built for this kind of petrol.
[2751]
According to Edgar Turner and colleagues 2007 the amount of research on
by-products from the oil palm, soy and biofuels industry is increasing.
However, less than 1% of publications were related to biodiversity and
species conservation. The authors stress that more studies are needed on
conservation strategies and sustainable management of plantations of oil
plants. These plantations are cited as a major threat to tropical
biodiversity centred on some of the world's most biodiverse regions.
Palm oil is also being criticised for its saturated fatty acids content
increasing the risc of coronary diseases.
[2752]
The Agency has announced the first steps of its activity to help people in the
UK reduce the amount of saturated fat they eat. Eating a diet high in
saturated fat and calories can contribute to developing a range of serious
diet-related illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes and some
cancers. In the UK, intakes of saturated fat are around 20% higher than
official Government recommendations.
A key part in helping to reduce saturated fat intakes will be in developing
and building on positive and collaborative partnerships with industry, along
with improving consumer awareness.
This programme outlines future work in the following areas:
- Building on partnerships with the food industry to:
- encourage further voluntary reformulation of specific food groups to
reduce the amount of saturated fat and added sugar they contain
- increase the ranges of healthier options and step up the promotion of healthier
products to consumers
- make smaller portion sizes more readily available
- publish food industry commitments to reformulate
- Increasing consumer awareness activity to raise the profile of saturated
fat as part of the overall efforts to encourage people to choose a healthy diet
- Holding an independent academic workshop to examine evidence on portion
sizes, chaired by the Nutrition and Health Research at the Medical Research Council.
Industry says that palmoil is at target because of their content of saturated
fats and the use of hard fractions of the oil to replace partially
hydrogenated oils high in trans-fats.
Polish meat and the EU-Russia Summit - Samara, 18 May 2007
EU and Russian leaders will meet on Friday 18 May in a resort near the city of
Samara in central Russia. On the agenda are the new EU-Russia agreement to
replace the current Partnership and Cooperation agreement, energy, climate
change, Russian WTO accession as well as the entry into force of the new visa
facilitation and readmission agreements. [2753]
The Commission in intensive collaboration with Poland and Russia tries to lift
the Russian ban on on the import of polish meat and cereals. Solving this
problem could open the way to the EU-Russia Summit in Samara.
[2754]
Accoding to ambassador Jan Tombinski, in an interview
with Euractiv, said that Poland has vetoed the negotiations due to an ongoing
ban on Polish meat imports imposed by Russia in 2005 because of meat with
falsified certificates. Inspectors of both Russia and the EU Commission
visiting Polish factories found Poland to be in full conformity with EU rules.
An EU-wide embargo was avoided. There are no reasons to continue this Russian
embargo. According to the ambassador, export is a matter of the EU and Poland
decided to make this a common EU issue because it is a trilateral issue, with
the European Commission as the third party. [2755]
The German role carrying the presidency of the EU, seen by Euobserver, is weak,
because it oversees fears of post-Communist' countries that Russia is using
trade and energy as political weapons to try and divide the new model union.
[2756]
Yam bean improvement
[2757]
The yam bean is an attractive alternative to traditional root/tuber crops.
Interspecific hybridization combined with intensive breeding methodes are
under way.
The Chuin-Type yam bean (Pachyrhizus tuiberosus) is a legume tuber which is
consumed like manioc. Grúneberg and colleagues crossed the Chui-type with
Pachyrhizus ahipa varieties, and obtained hybrids with high dry matter The
authors conclude that hybridisation is appropriate to improve the tuber dry
matter content in the yam bean in the Andean region.
The researchers believe that removing the toxic rotenone from the seeds of
the Chuin type of yam bean from Peru the plant could provide a protein source
as well as seed providing edible oil.
Séraphin Zanklan, a scientist at Centre Songhai in Porto-Novo (Benin)
identified a type with high storage root production with very low reduction
in storage root and seed production under drought. It has three to five times
more protein than potatoes or yams and the storage roots can be processed into
a granular flour similar to the current staple of West Africa "cassava gari".
The bean could improve food support in poor regions. [2776]
[2777]
Green Peace says that Unilever, Nestle and Proctor and Gamble are driving the
destruction of peat lands and rainforests in Indonesia. These companies
account for a significant volume of global palm oil use, mainly sourced from
Indonesia and Malaysia.
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is
an international multi-stakeholder organization dedicated to bringing
sustainable palm oil to the marketplace, as both a source of good for those in
producing regions as well as for those consuming the end product.
RSPO's objective is to promote the growth and use of sustainable palm oil
through cooperation within the supply chain and open dialogue between its
stakeholders [2778]
In 2001 RSPO was set up to bring the deforestation under control, with members
like Unilever as Chair of RSPO and members like Cadbury's, Nestlé and
Tesco, Cargill and ADM, the two latest representing 40 per cent of global
palm oil trade. The
Roundtable established ethical and ecological standards
for producing palm oil.
The deforestation, however was not stopped, and bad practices such as
large-scale forest clearance and taking land from local people without their
consent are still continuing. According to Green Peace the RSPO actually risks
creating the illusion of sustainable palm oil, justifying the expansion of the
palm oil industry. Palm oil plantations are now the leading cause of
rainforest destruction in Malaysia and Indonesia. [2779]
[2780]
Monocultures like soy bean plantations, sugar cane and castor oil plantations
displace small farmers, menace biodiversity and destroy the rain forest of Brazil.
Algae may combat iron deficiency and anemia in underdeveloped
countries
[2758]
García-Casal and colleagues studied iron, vitamin C, and phytic acid
composition and also iron bioavailability the marine algae Ulva sp, Sargassum
sp, Porphyra sp, and Gracilariopsis sp integrated in rice meals. The
researchers found 157 mg iron/100 g in Sargassum and 196 mg iron/100 g in
Gracilariopsis, and ascorbic acid concentration were found to be 38 micro g/g
dry weight in Ulva and 362 micro g/g dry weight in Sargassum. Phytates were
not detected in the algae.
The authors concluded that algae are good sources of ascorbic acid and
bioavailable iron, and stressed that promoting algae consumption could help
to improve iron nutrition in underdeveloped countries to combat iron
deficiency and anemia.
[2759]
The population of krill, small marine crustaceans which are the main feed for
whales, has reduced in the past 30 years, resulting in some concern over its
harvesting for krill oil. The Antarctic Krill Conservation
Projectis a growing network of
organizations working together to promote krill conservation.
The group is concerned about increasing catches to supply growing demand
for krill as aquaculture fishmeal, obtain krill oil for nutritional and
medical purposes, bycatch of larvae and juvenile krill, as well as new catch
technologies enabling much larger catch totals, could have a combined impact
that outpaces efforts to protect krill and dependent species.
Aker BioMarine, a Norwegian company promote its krill oil product as a dietary
supplement in the Nordic Countries and the United Stateshas and predicts high
growth of this product over the next few years. The company conducted clinical
studies on the effects krill on cardiovascular disease, inflammation and joint
problems, but results were not released yet. [2761]
The company expects for 2009 a total production of krill meal of approximately
20,000 metric tons. New technology for boiling will extract and preserve
bioactive components increases the value of the krill meal, the oil containing
omega-3 phospholipids and the antioxidant "astaxanthin".
[2761]
[2762]
Shipper and colleagues 2008 presented an assessment of the conservation status
and distribution of all 5487 species of the world's mammals including marine
mammals. According to the authors marine mammals are more threatened than land
species because of accidental mortality and pollution, rather than habitat loss.
Threads are highest in northern oceans, and lower in Southeast Asia. The authors
point out that marine mammals are poorly known. The study presents data which
may be helpful for conservation.
[2763]
According to National Research Council in USA
tropical fruit production in Africa is dominated by species introduced from
Asia and the, such as bananas, pineapples, and papayas which displaced the
traditional species that had fed Africans for thousands of years.
With renewed scientific and institutional support, however, native fruits
could make a much greater contribution to nutrition and economic development,
the new report says. Fruit trees and shrubs also offer long-term benefits by
improving the stability of the environment.
The National Research Council report lists the benefits of 24 fruits that are
considered candidates for optimisation. The most important of this list are:
- Aizen - A large Saharan shrub that grows in particularly
hostile places where few other plants can survive, aizen could protect eroding slopes,
stabilise dunes and create windbreaks. The fruits are good source of vitamins
A and C, calcium and some minerals, and the seeds a source of protein and zinc.
- Balanites - Also capable of thriving in the desert,
balanites' fruit are similar to dates and are already eaten in arid zones where food is scares. But
their full potential is not being realised, particularly since their kernels
are have a similar oil-protein balance to soybeans and sesame seeds (one half
oil, one half protein). They could also help counter desertification.
- Boabab - A sticky pulp from the fruits can be dried and used
as a nutritious powder that is high in protein, vitamins and minerals. This is
drunk with milk or other beverages. The pulp is also made into thin pancakes
that keep for a long time. The "almost indestructible" trees also yield a
leafy vegetable.
- Butterfruit - Butterfruit is a small tree, but its
fruit, high in calories and protein, are regarded as very promising to help reduce child
malnutrition. It is also a cash crop, and the mahogany-like wood could show
promise for plantations.
- Tamarind - The fruits are an excellent source of B
vitamins and calcium, and last a long time with no refrigeration. The
sweet-sour pulp can also be made into cakes. Tamarind trees also come with the
promise of restoring damaged lands.
[2764] [2765]
A third of the country's milk farmers could go under if prices continue to
fall. The EU milk production has come to a point where the price paid to the
farmers does not cover expenses for feed and energy. Farmers with up to 1.000
cows are on the verge of bankruptcy.
Romuald Schaber, a German milk farmer, facing a dreadful EU and German
agrarian politics, founded the Federation of German Dairy Farmers (BDM). All
milk farmers immediately joined the BDM leaving a huge void in the mighty
German Farmers Association which is failing to look after the needs of small
and middle sized farms.
The Bavarian Premier Horst Seehofer has called for German Chancellor Angela
Merkel to take measures. Both are very concerned with next elections where the
votes of the farmers may play a role.
Romuald Schaber makes pressure on the German and the European politicians to
reintroduce the milk quota system to set an upper limit of milk production in
order to avoid overproduction and erosion of milk price which is already under
production cost.
Another concern of farmers is the infiltration of the market with GM feed such
as the Monsnto GM corn Mon 810. Christoph Fischer campaigns against the
introduction of GM Food in Europe. His work made the politicians to ban the
Monsanto corn Mon 810. Corn is an important feedstuff for milk farming.
Farmers were afraid of the bad image of GM feed for their cows.
Christoph Fischer is founder of “Civil Courage Rosenheim”. He advocates the
Regional Structured Agriculture which is closely related to the work of Vandana
Shiva protecting the environment and peasant agriculture in India. These
activities try to correct undesirable development of our civilisation caused by
mismanagement of politics. [2766]
[2767]
Monoculture eucalyptus plantations are advancing over vast areas of Brazil,
occupying land inhabited by a rural population living there for generations,
displacing them, create poverty belts and menacing ecological diversity.
Pulp industry, such as the Swedish-Finnish company Stora Enso is acquiring
land on the west frontier of the State of Rio Grande do Sul. Data from 2005 of
the official body FEPAM says that Stora Enso owns 60 thousand hectares and
other sources cite 150.000 as real. The Brazilian industrial company
Votorantim Celulose e Papel plans to build a new pulp mill near the Laguna
Merin. The company will invest USD 1,800 million in the pulp mill, which is
projected to produce one million tons per year when finished in 2010.
Eucalyptus plantations take over agricultural land and cause the deforestation
of valuable biotypes. A 7 years old eucalyptus tree consumes daily about 700
litres of groundwater. Neighbouring communities dry out. The eucalyptus
plantations also make the soil infertile.
![\includegraphics[width=557bp,height=419bp,angle=0]{library/Eucalyptus.ps}](img151.png)
Once a small sea is now dried out by eucalyptus culture
Aracruz Celulose S.A. a Brazilian company, world's leading producer of
bleached eucalyptus paper pulp has a global market share of 24%. It owns
375,000 hectares of lands in four states The IFC, the International Finance
Corporation (A Branch of the World Bank Group) granted heavy loans to Aracruz
which made a liaison with Votorantim Celulose e papel founding the Fibria
union. Aracruz's land conflicts and not respecting the rights of the
Tupinikim, the Guarani and the Quilombola (ex-slaves) indigenous groups have
thrown shadows over the reputation of the company. [2768]
[2769]
Another application of eucalyptus plantations is the production of charcoal.
Brazil, Is the largest charcoal producer of the world, with more than 12 million
metric tons in year 2002, which is mainly for the metallurgy industry. 16.10.2009
[2770]
Isabelle Deltour and colleagues report in the Journal of the National
Cancer Institute, (101, pg 1721-1724, 2009) that the incidence of brain tumour
in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden between 1974 and 2003 were stable,
decreased, or continued a gradual increase that began before cell phones came
on the market. No clear change in incidence trends were noted during 1998 to
2003, a time of 5 to 10 years seen as an induction period to have the disease
become evident.
The authors stress that there is no clear biologic mechanism that explains
how mobile phones would cause brain tumours, and there is an overall evidence
against a risk, however, the etiology of brain tumours is poorly understood
and the large majority of the cases remain unexplained.
Dr. Deltour and colleagues write that the findings may be influenced by
factors such as that the induction period for brain tumours associated with
cell phone use exceeds 5 to 10 years; that the increased risk in this
population is too small to be observed; that the increased risk is restricted
to subgroups of brain tumours or cell phone users; or that there is no
increased risk.
The controversy was intensified in August by the released of the International
Electromagnetic Field Collaborative report: Cellphones and Brain Tumours: 15
Reasons for Concern, Science, Spin and the Truth Behind Interphone, [2771] which postulated "significant" cell phone risk for brain
tumours.
[2771]
Morgan and Philips 2009 report that regular use of cell phones can result in a
"significant" risk for brain tumours. But previous studies have been
inconsistent. The report presents useful advices to reduce the cancer risk:
Wired headset (not a wireless headset such as a Bluetooth), using
speaker-phone mode, or sending text messages; keeping the phone away from the
body when not in use; avoiding use in a moving car, train, or bus, or in rural
areas at some distance from a cell tower. Keep the cell phone turned off until
you need to use it.
The authors also recommend using a corded land-line phone
whenever possible, instead of a wireless phone, and to avoid cell phones when
inside buildings, particularly with steel structures. Since children face a
greater health risk, they should not be allowed to sleep with a cell phone
under their pillows or at the bedside. Ideally, those younger than 18 years
should not use a cell phone at all, except for emergencies. Most of all, the
cell phone industry must react to this report and develop advices which do
not pose health risks.
[2772]
Reacting to the International Electromagnetic Field Collaborative Report, the US
senate hold a hearing on the health effects of cell phone in September. The final
recommendation of the hearing was that more and better research is needed to
determine if there is a risk to human health, and while more data are being
collected a precautionary approach in the meantime.
Israel, France, and Finland, and the United
Kingdom issued warnings about the use of cell phones and advise taking
precautionary measures, especially for children. France requires cell phones
to be sold with earphones, establishes new limits for radiation, all cell
phones must be equipped with ear phones and a ban of cell phones advertising
for children under 12 years of age and the sale of cell phones designed for
children under 6 years was introduced.
[2773]
In three years the dream of King Abdullah came true in 2009 to diversify the
Saudi economy, moving it from an oil-based to a knowledge inspired economy.
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) is now perhaps the
most-watched and most important higher education place anywhere in the world.
It is believed that USD 20 billion were invested, making the scientific
outfit of its laboratories one of the most advanced places.
Some highlights are one of the most powerful super computer in the world. The
nanotechnology research is supported by ten advanced nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) spectrometers and facilities for scanning, transmission, confocal, and
Raman microscopy, magnetic and thermal measurements. Oceanographic studies will
be performed by the Coastal and Marine Resources Lab. Biosciences and
bioengineering include genomic and proteomic labs essential to the study of
cellular molecules for DNA sequencing and genetic analysis, as well as the
investigation of cellular processes. The genomics facility is equipped with
robots and laboratory automation. [2775]
[2774]
Rice farming is being blame to be a major source of global warming-causing
methane coming from the water-logged rice paddies.
According to Reiner Wassmann from the International Rice Research Institute in
Los Banos/Phillipines, methane is at least 20 times more effective at trapping
heat in the earth's atmosphere, compared with carbon dioxide. Methane was
responsible for one fifth of all greenhouse gas emissions.
About 10 percent of the methane comes from rice farming, while other sources
include the flatulence of cows and decomposing landfill garbage dumps.
The rice farmers in Asia and the rest of the world could improve their
agricultural methods, keeping the fiels less watered, and apply reduced amounts
of nitrogen fertiliser. Wassman, however, stressed that these fields supply rice
as staple food. The carbon footprint of a rice farmer is just a fraction of that
of a citizen of the United States or other developed country.
OurFood (c) 1998 - 2010 by Karl Heinz Wilm - Imprint (Impressum)