Subsections

Organic food

New label: Organic food nature food, Biokost and Naturproduct

European organic food hasmutated to mass production under the EU regulation 2092/91 and 1804/1999. [1069] [1070]

The European Commission in their "European Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming" states:
"Organic sales through supermarkets are the fastest-growing distribution channel in most markeFor consumers buying organic produce in supermarkets, environmental considerations are thought to be less important, compared to consumers buying produce in specialised organic shops." [1071]

The European organic food regulation clearly demonstrates its commitment to mass production and the supermarkets as distribution channel. This increases monoculture wide fields long transport ways and air freight.

The new meaning of "organic food":

The team of professor Carlo Leifert from the Univesity of Newcastle UK, is running the Quality Low Input Food (QLIF) project with a budget of 18 million Euro of the EU funding in 5 years. So far the team found that organic milk contains higher amounts of vitamin E, and fruits and vegetables have higher levels of vitamin C, minerals and antioxidants as found in non-organic ones [1072] [1073].

Some small studies were held on organic tomatos [1074], Organic peaches had a 4.8 higher polyphenol content at harvest in 2004, whereas the same phenomenon was not observed in 2005 [1075]. Total phenols, vitamin C, total flavones and antioxdant capacity of organic apple pure was found to be higher than that of preserves prepared from conventional apples. However, after pasteurization, the content of vitamin C, total phenols and flavones and antioxidant properties decreased in the apple pure from both agricultural systems (organic and conventional) [1076].


EU Organic Regulation 834/2007

[1077] [1194]
Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 is hereby repealed as from 1 January 2009.
The new rules set out a complete set of objectives, principles and basic rules for organic production, and include a new permanent import regime and a more consistent control regime. The use of the EU organic logo will be mandatory, but it can be accompanied by national or private logos. The place where the products were farmed has to be indicated to inform consumers.

Food will only be able to carry an organic logo if at least 95 percent of the ingredients are organic. But non-organic products will be entitled to indicate organic ingredients on the ingredients list only. The use of genetically modified organisms will remain prohibited. It will now be made explicit that the general limit of 0.9 percent for the accidental presence of authorised GMOs will also apply to organic products .

The new rules also create the basis for adding rules on organic aquaculture, wine, seaweed and yeasts. The new organic regulation and labelling will come into force in January 2009

The EU followed the pressure of GM companies such as AstraZeneca, BASF Plant Science, Bayer CropScience, Dow AgroSciences, Du Pont, Monsanto and Syngenta. The new regulation increases the current threshold for GM contamination of organic food from 0.1 per cent to 0.9 per cent and allowing the use of GM-produced additives for which there is no GM-alternative the new regulation opens the way for genetically modified material to enter organic food.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids: Ellis and colleagues Organic milk had a higher proportion of PUFA to monounsaturated fatty acids and of n-3 FA than conventional milk, and contained a consistently lower n-6:n-3 FA ratio (which is considered beneficial) compared with conventional milk [1079].

Croissant and colleagues measured greater percentages of unsaturated fatty acids, including two common isomers of conjugated linoleic acid, in pasture based milks compared with milk of cattle fed a conventional total mixed ration. Distinct flavour and compositional differences between both types of milk were such that they did not affect consumer acceptance [1080].

The UK Food Standards Agency says that the balance of current scientific evidence does not support the view that organic fruit, vegetable and meat are more nutritious than non-organic foods [1081].

FSA stresses also that milk contains the shorter chain form of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid), while the forms present in oily fish are the long chain fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA)).

Research has shown that the short chain form found in plant and dairy sources does not appear to be as beneficial as those found in oily fish, which have been shown to be protective for cardiovascular disease, and may alsohave beneficial effects on foetal development. Although the shorter form can be metabolised to the longer forms, in humans the conversion appears limited. The FSA, however, will review the scientific literature on nutrients of organic food, which will be released in March 2008. [1082]

The Soil Association tries to set standards for and promote the consumption of organic meat and produces. The Association allows air freight despite the tremendous damage it causes to climate. [7]

New definition of organic food and nature food
The organic food produced according to the EU regulation differs from the original way of production. It becomes necessary to separate the organic food from supermarkets from the original nature food, produced under strict rules of certifying corporations which follow the principles of organic associations, like Demeter or follow a holistic way of farming.

New definition of organic food and nature food:

The organic food produced according to the EU regulation differs from the original way of production. It becomes necessary to separate the organic food from supermarkets from the original nature food, produced under strict rules of certifying corporations which follow the principles of Rudolf Steiner or follow a holistic way of farming.

Definition:

To make the difference between both types of food the following definition is being suggested:

Nature food (En), Naturkost (D):

Nature food is produced according to rules of certifying corporations which follow the principles of other holistic ways of farming. These Foods are sold by the producer itself at its farm, at weekly markets or at nature shops. There competent informations are given concerning the origin of the food. The consumer understands that the higher price of nature products is due to diversification of crops at the farm, a species-appropriate animal raising, and environment conservation.

The nature food farmers and the specialised nature shops should distanciate itself from the words "Organic" or "Biokost" because they have become a domain of supermarkets and have undergone a mutation from the original food.

Organic Food (En), (Biokost D):

Organicfood is produced according to the EU 2092/91 and 1804/1999 regulation. The consumer expects food produced without agrarian chemicals, like herbicides or pesticides. He expects better taste compared with conventional foods. He looks after low priced products. He is concerned with the welfare of his person and does not care about environment. He is not interested to know the food miles and airfreight of the items he buys. Organic food is primarily sold by supermarket chains.

Some reaction of producer and customers have put the Basic chain of organic supermarkets under pressure not to sale its shares to the Swiss Schwarz group, owner of supermarket chain Lidl.

Organic milk in USA under fire

[1084]
Aurora, selling milk under brands which include Costco's Kirkland and Target's Archer Farms in cartons marked "USDA organic," with pictures of pastures or other bucolic scenes, was lawsuited for not being organic at all.

Aurora claims that there is absolutely no basis for claims we defrauded consumers by selling milk that isn't organic - none whatsoever. [1085] [1086]

Consumers buy organic food believing it is free of hormones or pesticides and the production protects the environment. Organic products, however, are being sold in such quantities that it is not possible to follow organic rules established by the Organic Foods Production Act 1990 [1087].

The "Harvey Rule", demande stricter rules governing organic milk production. It requires farmers to feed their livestock 100 percent organic grain, compared with the earlier standard of 80 percent organic grain and 20 percent conventional grain. The Harvey Rule went into effect in June 2007 [1088]

But rising corn prices are a problem for organic farmers, because corn farmers see few incentives to go organic because they can make so much money selling their crops to make ethanol.

Meanwhile overproduction of organic milk drives to greater quantities of organic powdered milk, yogurt, ice cream, Omega-3-fortified organic milk and cheeses.

Introduction

With the introduction of new seeds of wheat and rice, as well as the use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation Dr. Norman Borlaug started the "Green Revolution" in 1950. The Nobel Peace Price was awarded to him in 1970 for averting famine in India and Pakistan in the 1960s. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides rose the world grain production from 1950 to 1992 by 170 %,using only one percent more land.


  1950 1992 Growth
Grains, million tons 692 1900 174%
Population billions 2.2 5.6 154%
Cropland billion acres 1.70 1.73 1.7%

Another important step in agrarian technology is the development of new strains of wheat that can grow on pastures with a high aluminum content in Brazil, slowing down the cutting of the rain forest.

Despite the protests of environmentalists, Borlaug brought high-yield agriculture to Africa, which still depends on slash-and-burn subsistence farming. Due to his efforts, Ethiopia recorded the greatest harvest of major crops in its history during the 1995-96 season with a 32 percent increase in production and a 15 percent increase in average yield over the previous season.

Despite the benefits of the green revolution other systems are being developed. No system alone can be the answer to the problems feeding the world: All of them allow positive results which can complement one another.

Organic food

Organic food production in large scale started in Europe in 1993 with the subventions of the governments trying to shift from chemical based to a natural agriculture. Austria and Swiss have about 10%f their area covered with organic fields. France plans to change 20% of the direct paid agrarian funds in ecological developing programs.

Organic crop yields
The crop yields of organic farms are much lower as obtained by conventional farming. This means, the prices of these products are higher than conventional prices The difference varies from 20 to 100%. A problem is the low acceptance of the organic products because of their price. As supermarkets started to sell these products, a higher output was possible, resulting in a small price reduction.


Product Conventional Organic
  breeding breeding
Milk/cow/year 4886 litres 4044 litres
Wheat/dt/ha 61 dt/ha 38 dt/ha

Due to the BSE scandal, organic farmers are getting better support from government. Global agriculture leads to a soybean-corn-beef agriculture, producing increasingly processed foods, fast foods and standard foods with higher yields, which are cheaper and less labor intensive.

The demand from consumers for organically produced agricultural products and foodstuffs is increasing; whereas a new market for agricultural products is thus being created with a higher market price as for conventional products because the way in which they are produced involves less intensive use of land.

Unfortunately a great group of consumer buy organic foods only because of their own health. Comparing prices, the positive impact on environment, ecology and conservation of the countryside are not taken into consideration.

Organics in USA, regulations: According to Ronnie Cummins, writing for The Progressive Populisat The USDA is caught in a familiar predicament given the agency's dual role. On the one hand it is set up ostensibly to protect consumers by ensuring a safe food supply and guarantee the economic livelihood of America's farmers, the majority of whom continue to operate small and medium-sized farms. On the other hand, USDA also sees as its role to promote the industrialization and globalization of American agriculture which means working closely with large agribusiness, chemical, and biotechnology corporations. The natural food industry, with its small stores, small family farms, and discriminating consumers, has begun to pose a direct threat to the market share of large-scale agribusiness. [1089]

US regulation [1090]
National Organics Standards Board (NOSB)composed of industry representatives, farmers, environmentalists and food processors. The NOSB, established by the Organic Foods Production Act in 1990, made recommendations to the USDA that explicitly banned genetically engineered foods, irradiation, farming with sewage sludge, and intensive confinement factory farm type animal husbandry practices.

Organic Foods Production Standards regulates the certification of organic producers.

USDA's National Organic Program (NOP), authorized under the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 regulates organic foods in USA

European regulation: [1069] [1070]
To create a framework of Community rules on production, labelling and inspection of organic farming, the Council Regulation No 2092/91 EWG on organic production of agricultural products, the No 1804/1999 which includes livestock production, and the No 207/93EEC [1091] were adopted.

Organic farming involving varied cultivation practices and limited use of non-synthetic fertilizers are specified in these regulations. Conditions for the use of certain non-synthetic products are there laid down. Specific provisions are made, aiming to avoid the presence of certain residues of synthetic chemicals from sources other than agriculture (environmental contamination).

Organic production methods entail significant restrictions on the use of fertilizers and pesticides which may have detrimental effects on the environment or result in the presence of residues in agricultural produce. Ingredients for processed organic foods are specified in the regulation.

Organic food is produced by farmers who emphasize the use of renewable resources and the conservation of soil and water to enhance environmental quality for future generations. Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products come from animals that are given no antibiotics or growth hormones.

Organic food is produced without using most conventional pesticides; fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge; bioengineering; or ionizing radiation.
The demand from consumers for organically produced agricultural products and foodstuffs is increasing; whereas a new market for agricultural products is thus being created with a higher market price as for conventional products because the way in which they are produced involves less intensive use of land.

Unfortunately a great group of consumer buy organic foods only because of their own health. Comparing prices, the positive impact on environment, ecology and conservation of the countryside are not taken into consideration.

Organic crop yields
The crop yields of organic farms are much lower as obtained by conventional farming. This means, the prices of these products are higher than conventional prices The difference varies from 20 to 100 percent.

A problem is the low acceptance of the organic products because of their price. As supermarkets started to sell these products, a higher output was possible, resulting in a small price reduction.

Organic Food in Europe

In 1991 the Council created with Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 the first ever Community framework for organic farming and food production.

Organic food production in large scale started 1993 in Europe with the subventions of the governments trying to shift from chemical based to a natural agriculture. Austria and Swiss have about 10% of their area covered with organic fields. France plans to change 20% of the direct paid agrarian funds in ecological developing programs.

In 2001, the Council under Swedish Presidency,invited the Commission to propose a European Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming (EAP). The Commission adopted the Communication on the EAP in June 2004.

Organic production

Organic production is an overall system of farm management and food production that combines best environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, preservation of natural resources, application of high animal welfare standards and production in line with the preference of certain consumers for products produced using natural substances and processes.

The organic production method thus plays a dual societal role, where it on the one hand provides for a specific market responding to a consumer demand for organic products, and on the other hand delivers public goods contributing to the protection of the environment and animal welfare, as well as to rural development.

The essential requirements defining organic production and labelling of organic products are laid down by the principles and production rules formulated in this proposal.

The Proposal on Organic Food

The proposal covers all organic products.
ExceptionsThe preparation and sale to the final consumer of meals in large scale kitchens; for example in restaurants, hotels, hospitals and canteens, or in bars and coffee shops are not covered by the Proposal.

The EU logo should continue to be available on all products that comply with the Regulation, including for all imported products.

GMO's: Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and products produced from or by GMOs are incompatible with the concept of organic production and consumers' perception of organic products. They should therefore not be deliberately used in organic farming or in the processing of organic products. The Proposal prohibits the use of the term 'organic' for GMO labelled products.

At least 95 percent of the final product must be organic for it to be labelled as such. Although products containing GMOs may not be labelled as organic, there is an exception for those with up to 0.9 percent GMO content from accidental contamination.

Organic farming

Organic farming should primarily rely on renewable resources within locally organised agricultural systems. In order to minimise the use of non-renewable resources, wastes of plant and animal origin should be recycled to return nutrients to the land and for energy production.

Organic plant production should contribute to maintaining and enhancing soil fertility as well as to preventing soil erosion. Plants should preferably be fed through the soil eco-system and not through soluble fertilisers added to the soil.

The essential elements of the organic plant production management system are soil fertility management, choice of species and varieties, multi-annual crop rotation, recycling organic materials and cultivation techniques. Additional fertilisers, soil conditioners and plant protection products should only be used if they are compatible with the objectives and principles of organic production.

Controls

With regard to controls, Regulation (EC) No 882/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council on official food and feed controls (OFFC) entered into application on 1 January 2006 covering organic farming.

Organic Logos: Organic foods may bear the organic logo for their individual member state. Under the new regulation it will be compulsory for them to also carry either the EU logo, which has existed for a number of years, or to wording 'EU organic'.

The regulations COM(2005) 671 final 2005/0278 (CNS) 2005/0279 (CNS) will come into force for EU member states in January 2009. For imports, for which there are presently no rules, they will be effective from January 2007. Such imports must comply with EU standards or come with equivalent guarantees from their country of origin.

Principles applicable to all organic production

Principles applicable to organic farming

Production of processed organic feed and food

General farm production rules

Where not all of a farm is used for organic production, the holding may be split up into clearly separated units which are not all managed under organic production. In this case, adequate records to show the separation must be kept.

Farmers are required not to use GMOs or products produced from GMOs. Where farmers use products purchased from third parties to produce organic food or feedstuffs, they shall require the vendor to confirm that the products supplied have not been produced by +Os.

Plant production rules

Organic plant production should comply with the following rules:

Livestock production rules

Livestock production should complie with the following rules: With regard to husbandry practices and housing conditions: With regard to breeding: With regard to feed: With regard to disease prevention and veterinary treatment:

Production rules for feed

Production of organic feed shall be kept separate from production of non organic feed.

Organic feed materials, and/or feed materials from production in conversion, shall not enter simultaneously with the same feed materials produced by non organic means into the composition of the organic feed product.

Hexane and other organic solvents may not be used.

Feed manufacturers are required not to use GMOs or products produced from GMOs where they should have knowledge of their presence due to information on any label accompanying the product or from other accompanying documents.

Where feed manufacturers use ingredients and additives purchased from third parties to produce feedstuffs for organic livestock, they shall require the vendor to confirm that the products supplied have not been produced by GMOs.

General rules on the production of processed food

The following criteria shall apply to the composition of organic processed food:

Label and advertising claims

The terms listed in in Annex I of the Proposal, such as organic, ecologico, ökologisch, biologisch, their derivatives or diminutives, alone or combined, may be used throughout the Community and in any Community language for the labelling and advertising of a product which is produced and controlled, or imported, in accordance with this Regulation.

These terms may not be used for a product which bears a label indicating that it contains GMOs, consists of GMOs or is produced from GMOs.

General claims that a particular set of private or national organic standards is stricter, more organic or otherwise superior to the rules laid down in this Regulation, or to any other set of organic standards, may not be used on labels or in advertising.

However, indications referring to specific elements of the production method used for a certain product may only be used on labels or in advertising on condition that they are true statements of fact and otherwise in conformity with the general labelling requirements set out in Directive 2000/13/EC.

Certification

The competent authority and the approved control bodies may grant certificates, including the right to use their marks of conformity with organic standards, to operators which are subject to the control system.

Imports from third countries

A product imported from a third country may be placed on the Community market labelled as organic where it complies with standards equivalent to those applied to organic production in the Community, or is in accordance with the internationally recognised standards set out in the Codex Alimentarius guidelines.

Aquaculture

As regards to aquaculture the proposal achieves one of the actions of the Commission Communication to the Council and the European Parliament of 2002 on the sustainable development of European aquaculture, namely "harmonisation of the rules on organic aquaculture under Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91".

International harmonization of organic food - Codex Alimentarius [1068]

The Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods provide the requirements of production, the labelling and claims for organic foods.

These guidelines are at this stage a first step into official international harmonization of the requirements for organic products in terms of production and marketing standards, inspection arrangements and labelling requirements.

Main subjects of the organic foods Codex guidelines
The main subjects of these guidelines are:

Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agroecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity.

Apart from a small portion of agricultural commodities marketed directly from the farm to consumers, most products find their way to consumers via established trade channels. To minimize deceptive practices in the market place, specific measures are necessary to ensure that trade and processing enterprises can be audited effectively. Therefore, the regulation of a process, rather than a final product, demands responsible action by all involved parties.

Import requirements of organic products should be based on the principles of equivalency and transparency as set out in the Principles for Food Import and Export Inspection and Certification.

Labelling of organic products
Organic products should be labelled in accordance with the Codex General Standard for the Labelling of Prepackaged Foods (CODEX STAN 1-1985, Rev 1-1991) [1092] in addition to Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Marketing and Labelling of Organically Produced Foods 2005 (GL 32 - 1999, Rev. 1 - 2001) [1068]

Rules of production and preparation
Permitted substance lists

Inspection
According to the Codex Alimentarius Guidelines for Organic Foods inspection measures are necessary across the whole of the food chain to verify product labelled according to the guidelines conforms to internationally agreed practices.

Access by the inspection body to all written and/or documentary records and to the establishment under the inspection scheme is essential. The operator under an inspection should also give access to the competent or designated authority and provide any necessary information for third party audit purposes.

Rules of production and preparation of organic products according to the Codex:Organic products should be stored and transported according to the requirements defined in the guidelines.

Plant and plant products: Special principles defined in the guidelines should have been applied on the parcels, farm or farm units during a conversion period of at least two years before sowing, or in the case of perennial crops other than grassland, at least three years before the first harvest of products labelled as organic.

Livestock and livestock products:Where livestock for organic production are maintained, they should be an integral part of the organic farm unit and should be raised and held according to these guidelines.

Compliance periods for livestock: Once the land has reached organic status and livestock from a non-organic source is introduced, and if the products are to be sold as organic, such livestock must be reared according to these Guidelines for at least the following compliance periods:

Bovine and equine

Ovine and caprine Porcine Poultry/laying hens Nutrition
All livestock systems should provide the optimum level of 100% of the diet from feedstuffs produced to the requirements of these guidelines.

For an implementation period to be set by the competent authority, livestock products will maintain their organic status providing feed, consisting of at least 85% for ruminants and 80% for non-ruminants and calculated on a dry matter basis, is from organic sources produced in compliance with these Guidelines.

Specific criteria for feedstuffs, nutritional elements, additives and Processing Aids are defined in the guidelines.

Livestock husbandry, transport and slughter: Maintenance of livestock should be guided by an attitude of care, responsibility and respect for living creatures.

Beekeeping and bee products: Bee keeping is an important activity that contributes to the enhancement of the environment, agriculture and forestry production through the pollination action of bees. The treatment and management of hives should respect the principles of organic farming.

Collection areas must be large enough to provide adequate and sufficient nutrition and access to water.The sources of natural nectar, honeydew and pollen shall consist essentially of organically produced plants and/or spontaneous (wild) vegetation.

Handling, storage, transportation, processing and packaging
The integrity of the organic product must be maintained throughout the processing phase. This is achieved by the use of techniques appropriate to the specifics of the ingredients with careful processing methods limiting refining and the use of additives and processing aids. Ionizing radiation should not be used on organic products for the purpose of pest control, food preservation, elimination of pathogens or sanitation.

Pest managementFor pest management and control the following measures, in order of preference, should be used:
Preventative methods, such as disruption and elimination of habitat and access to facilities by pest organisms, should be the primary methodology of pest management.

If preventative methods are inadequate, the first choice for pest control should be mechanical/physical and biological methods.

If mechanical/physical and biological methods are inadequate for pest control, pesticidal substances listet in these guidelines (or other substances allowed for use by a competent authority) may be used.

Global situation of organic farming

Organic food in Africa: SEKEM, an Egyptian organic agriculture company, won the Right Livelihood Award in 2003. Uganda, is the first country that has reached 1 percent of agricultural land to be certified organic.

Dr. Thomas van Elsen speaking about Biologic-dynamical farming and landscape states: "Ecological - also known as biologic - dynamical managing alone is no guaranty for a manifold landscape" New strategies concerning farming are necessary.

USA
USDA's National Organic Program (NOP), authorized under the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 regulates organic foods in USA. [1067]

The US National Organic Program presents a domestic and a foreign list of the USDA Accredited Certifying Agents (ACAs), application for certification, applications for cost sharing programmes for organic crops and livestock producers.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) will accredit State, private, and foreign organizations or persons to become "certifying agents". Certifying agents will certify that production and handling practices meet the national standards

The US Certification
Operations or portions of operations that produce or handle agricultural products that are intended to be sold, labelled, or represented as "100 percent organic," "organic," or "made with organic ingredients" or food group(s).

Excepted from certification are:
Farms and handling operations that sell less than $5,000 a year in organic agricultural products. Although exempt from certification, these producers and handlers must abide by the national standards for organic products and may label their products as organic. Handlers, including final retailers, that do not process or repackage products.

Handlers that only handle products with less than 70 percent organic ingredients. A handling operation or portion of an operation that is a retail food establishment that processes or prepares, on the premises of the establishment, raw and ready-to-eat food labelled organic.

A handling operation that chooses to use the word organic only on the information panel. A handling operation that handles products that are packaged or otherwise enclosed in a container prior to being received by the operation and remain in the same package.

NOP Standards (7 CFR Part 205)

[1129] Summary: NOP Standards became effective in 2002. It will facilitate domestic and international marketing of fresh and processed food that is organically produced and assure consumers that such products meet consistent, uniform standards.

This program establishes national standards for the production and handling of organically produced products, including a National List of substances approved for and prohibited from use in organic production and handling.

It establishes an accreditation program for State officials and private persons who want to be accredited as certifying agents. It includes requirements for labeling products as organic and containing organic ingredients. It provides rules for importation of organic agricultural products with equivalent organic program requirements.

Allowed and Prohibited Substances
A certified operation must only use allowed substances, methods, and ingredients for the production and handling of agricultural products that are sold, labeled, or represented as "100 percent organic," "organic," or made with..." for these products to be in compliance with the Act and the NOP regulations. Use of ionizing radiation, sewage sludge, and excluded methods are prohibited in the production and handling of organic agricultural products.

The National List (7 CFR 205.600-606) as published in the regulations is the official source for decisions concerning approved and prohibited materials for organic operations. No other citation is allowed. The OMRI Generic Materials List (GML) is therefore not to be applied for any decisions concerning organic foods certification. [1130]


Labelling principle display Information Ingredient Other package
category panel panel statement panels
"100 percent "100 percent "100 percent If multiingredient "100 percent
Organic" organic (optional) organic product, identify organic"
Entirely whole,   (optional) each ingredient as (optional)
organic: USDA seal and Certifying agent "organic" (optional)  
whole, raw or certifying agent name (required)   USDA seal and
processed seal(s) (optional) business/internet   certifying agent
product)   address tele nr.   seal(s) (optional)
    (optional)    
"organic" "Organic" plus "X% organic" Identify organic "X% organic"
(95% or more product name) (optional) ingredients as (optional)
organic (optional)   "organic" (required  
ingredients) "X% organic" Certifying agent if other organic USDA seal and
  (optional) name(required) labelling is shown certifying agent
  USDA seal and business/internet   seal(s) (optional)
  certifying agents address tele nr.    
  seal(s) (optional) 8optional9    
"Made with "made with organic "X% organic Identify organic "made with
organic (ingredients or ingredients" ingredients as organic
ingredients" food group(s) (optional) "organic (required" (ingredients or
(70 to 95% (optional)   if other organic food group(s)
organic   Certifying agent labelling is shown) (optional)
ingredients)   address tele nr.   Certifying agent
  Certifying agent (optional)   seal of final
  seal of final Prohibited:   product handler
  product handler USDA seal   (optional)
  (optional)     Prohibited:
    Prohibited:   USDA seal
  seal USDA    
Less-than 70% Prohibited: "X% organic" Identify organic Prohibited:
organic Any reference (optional) ingredients as USDA seal and
ingredients to organic   "organic" (optional) certifying agent
  content of      
  product      
  Prohibited: Prohibited: (required if % seal
  USDA seal USDA seal organic is  
  and certifying and certifying displayed)  
  agent seal agent seal    

Other special food systems with organic claims

AGöL and IFOAM: These systems are regulated by rules which have been established by their own organization. The principles of organic agriculture was first described in 8 lectures held by Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and was also based on Goethe and his recognition of nature. Demeter farmers deal with their farms as a unique living organism. They call this kind of farming "biodinamic".

The organizations which follow these principles are united under the cover of AGÖL , an agricultural cooperative bringing together all the Organic inspection bodies. It was founded in Germany in 1988, through the initiative of Demeter.

The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)

[1131] The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) embraces worldwide all organic federations, whose goal is the worldwide adoption of ecologically, socially and economically sound systems based on the principles of Organic Agriculture. The Movement was founded in 1972 and is an independent global non-profit organization.

The IFOAM Principles of Organic Agriculture

[1132] In its Principles the IFOAM defines agriculture as one of humankind's most basic activities because all people need to nourish themselves daily. History, culture and community values are embedded in agriculture. The Principles apply to agriculture in the broadest sense and is concerned with the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another and shape the legacy of future generations.

The Principles of Organic Agriculture serve to inspire the organic movement in its full diversity and are presented with a vision of their world-wide adoption.

Organic agriculture is based on:
Each principle is articulated through a statement followed by an explanation. The principles are to be used as a whole. They are composed as ethical principles to inspire action.

Principle of health
Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible. This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities cannot be separated from the health of ecosystems - healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster the health of animals and people.

Health is the wholeness and integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social and ecological well-being. Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health.

The role of organic agriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution, or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health of ecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings. In particular, organic agriculture is intended to produce high quality, nutritious food that contributes to preventive health care and well-being. In view of this it should avoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may have adverse health effects.

Principle of ecology
Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and help sustain them.

This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that production is to be based on ecological processes, and recycling. Nourishment and well-being are achieved through the ecology of the specific production environment. For example, in the case of crops this is the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; for fish and marine organisms, the aquatic environment.

Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit the cycles and ecological balances in nature. These cycles are universal but their operation is site-specific. Organic management must be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse, recycling and efficient management of materials and energy in order to maintain and improve environmental quality and conserve resources.

Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming systems, establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural diversity. Those who produce, process, trade, or consume organic products should protect and benefit the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats, biodiversity, air and water.

Principle of fairness
Organic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities

Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both among people and in their relations to other living beings.

This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conduct human relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties - farmers, workers, processors, distributors, traders and consumers. Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a good quality of life, and contribute to food sovereignty and reduction of poverty. It aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality food and other products.

This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of life that accord with their physiology, natural behaviour and well-being.

Natural and environmental resources that are used for production and consumption should be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust for future generations. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that are open and equitable and account for real environmental and social costs.

Principle of care
Organic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.

Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external demands and conditions. Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk of jeopardizing health and well-being. Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing methods reviewed. Given the incomplete understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care must be taken.

This principle states that precaution and responsibility are the key concerns in management, development and technology choices in organic agriculture. Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However, scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and indigenous knowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time. Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by adopting appropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering.

Decisions should reflect the values and needs of all who might be affected, through transparent and participatory processes.

Other special food systems with organic claims

AGÖL and IFOAM: These systems are regulated by rules which have been established by their own organization. The principles of organic agriculture was first described in 8 lectures held by Rudolf Steiner in 1924 and was also based on Goetheand his recognition of nature.

Demeter farmers: [1133] Demeter farmers deal with their farms as a unique living organism. They call their farming biodinamic.
The organizations which follow these principles are united under the cover of AGÖL (Arbeitsgemeinschaft ökologischer Landbau) (Working group for organic farming) , an agricultural cooperative bringing together all the Organic inspection bodies. It was founded in Germany in 1988, through the initiative of Demeter. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) embraces worldwide all organic federations, whose goal is the worldwide adoption of ecologically, socially and economically sound systems based on the principles of Organic Agriculture.

Diversification and periodic crop changes are the basis of organic farming. It tries to control weeds, to provide soil nutrients and guarantee soil fertility. Synthetic pesticides are not used. Useful antagonists of pest are supported keeping pests under control. Genetic modified plants and seeds are not allowed. Landscape conservation such as planting bushes to avoid wind erosion and provide breeding places for birds are part of these regulations. Changing from conventional to organic farming takes two to three years.

Demeter is a member of the AGÖL. It is the only ecological association that has built up a network of individual certification organisations world-wide. In 1997 Demeter-International was founded for closer co-operation in the legal, economic and spiritual spheres. Presently Demeter International has 18 members from Demeter organisations from Europe, America, Africa and New Zealand. Thus Demeter-International represents around 3.000 Demeter producers in nearly 40 countries.

Greek mythology: The name of the organization comes from the goddess of grain and fertility in ancient Greek, Demeter. The Greeks, like most ancient cultures, relied upon agriculture for their sustenance. As the patron deity of agriculture her association with grain also translated into a close relationship with human fertility. There are, consequently, many myths dealing with Demeter in her capacity as a fertility goddess.

Homeric Hymn to Demeter, in which the story of the goddess and the abduction of her daughter Persephone and the consequent anger of Demeter is told. The Hymn also alludes to aspects of the mystery cult referred to as the Eleusinian Mysteries.

The goddess Demeter was known as Ceres in Roman mythology.

History of the organization

1927 First co-operative was formed to market Bio-Dynamic produce.
1928 At the Sierra Madre, Mexico start the first Bio-Dynamic Coffee Plantation.
1939 In New Zealand the 'Bio-Dynamic Association' was founded.
1941 All Demeter-Organisations and the monthly magazine "Demeter" are forbidden in Germany through the NSDAP.
1946 The 'Experimental Circle for Bio-Dynamic farming methods' restarts the movement.
1963 Maria Thun comprehensive work on the cosmic influences upon plants and the sowing calendar"The Star Calendar".
1994 Demeter Standards for Food Processing.
The first Doctorate on a Bio-Dynamic theme (The rhythms of the moon) is written by Dr. Hartmut Spiess, a fellow worker at the Institute for Bio-Dynamic Research. Demeter is restructured in accordance with the threefold social order, and this, together with the importance of regional impulses, becomes the main focus of the work.

Further AGÖL organisations
Bioland, organic biologic agriculture
Biokreis Ostbayern
Naturland
ANOG (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Naturnahen Obst-, Gemüse und Feldfruchtanbau e.V.
ECO VIN (Bundesverband Ökologisher Weinbau (BÖW)
Gäa e.V. ( Had its roots in the former DDR)
Ökosiegel

AGÖL regulation for organic animal farming

The farmer does not see the animal as a mean of production, but he considers it as a component of the cycle soil-plant-animal-human.

Dairy cattle: Dairy cattle and calves must have access to pasture in summer or access to the open air all the year round. To tie up young and fattening stock all the year round is not allowed. Access to the open air has to be available ever where possible. Sleeping stalls are to be spread with straw (or other organic litter). Farming is limited to two cows per hectare.

Poultry: Caged systems are prohibited for poultry. In ground managed systems at least one third of the floor area is to be available as scratching area. Open-air runs are required for young birds and laying hens. Other poultry are to have access to an outside run, waterfowl also having access to open water.

Feeds: Feeds must be appropriate to the class of animal, its age and its physiological needs, with care also being given to provide sufficient mineral nutrition. The necessary minerals and trace elements should be of natural origin as far as possible (herbs, leaf forage etc.). Fodder produced on the farm forms the basis of animal nutrition. At least 50% of the feed for each animal type respectively, must originate on the farm or in co-operation with another Demeter farm.

Hormones are not allowed. Antibiotics, sulphonamide drugs, coccidiostats, synthetic compounds from organic chemistry and pharmaceuticals are not permitted as additives to feed. Isolated amino acids, growth promoters, production enhancers (feed antibiotics and enhancers) and synthetic chemical feed additives (except vitamins) are not allowed.

Labelling of organics:

The Regulation 2092/91 EWG regulates standards for the production and the control of organics. These standards are intended to protect farmers and consumers from misleading use of "Bio" and "Organics". They should only be used if at least 95% of ingredients are organic.

The regulation defines also a clear difference between organic foods and conventional ones. All regulations refer to vegetable origin. Organic animal breeding is not mentioned in the regulation 2092/91 EWG.

Very detailed description of organic breeding of meat producing animals are found in "Demeter Production standards" and "International Demeter Processing Standards" which were implemented by all international members and the AGÖL members Germany by the 1st January 2003.

The general rules of the AGÖL are tighter than the regulations of the European Organic regulation which permits a registration as organic of a part of the farm. The rule of AGÖL , does not.

Specific terms: Terms such as integrated, controlled, environment sustainable, ecologically friendly do not mean they are conform to the organic regulations from the EU or AGÖL. These are pseudo organic products.

Global situation of organic farming

[1134] Organic food in Africa: SEKEM, an Egyptian organic agriculture company, won the Right Livelihood Award in 2003. Uganda, is the first country that has reached 1 percent of agricultural land to be certified organic.

Dr. Thomas van Elsen (University of Kassel, Faculty of Ecological Agriculture Sciences, Department of Organic Farming and Cropping Systems Witzenhausen, Germany) speaking about Biologic-dynamical farming and landscape states: "Ecological - also known as biologic-dynamical managing alone is no guaranty for a manifold landscape. New strategies concerning farming are necessary."


Land Percent
  of total land area
  under organic
2001 management
Switzerland 9.0
Austria 8.6
Italy 6.8
Sweden 5.8
Czech Republic 3.9
UK 3.3
Uganda 1.0
USA 0.3
  Source:Economic Research
  Service USDA AIB-780 [1134]



On behalf of the organic ideas, centres have been created to develop organic agriculture, farming an manifold landscapes, beekeeping and nature conservation.

Social economic environment

Sustainable agriculture can only succeed if environment, social interests and global affairs are treated in a holistic way.

Social economic environmental research is done by Dr. C. Krotscheck or Prof. Dr. M. Narodoslawsky at the Institute of Chemical Engineering, Graz, University of Technology dealing with the sustainable development of two partners: ecosphere and sociosphere. The Node of Social Economic Environmental Research in Austria has collected encompassing information about the current state and direction of Austrian research efforts in this highly dynamic area.

Alternative Diets

Acceptance of organic food is strongly bounded to dietary believes of the consumers. Some knowledge in this field is necessary to understand the different ways they are going.

A variety of alternative diets are offered for treating cancer, cardiovascular disease, and food allergies. Virtually all of these interventions focus on freshly prepared vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and legumes.

Food allergy and intolerance are being studied as contributing factors in rheumatoid arthritis. Other benefits attributed to alternate dietary lifestyles include a greater resistance to illness and improved control for hyperactive children.

Most diets include variations of the vegetarian, macrobiotic, and cultural diets of Asian and Mediterranean nations. Studies report a significant lowering of risk factors for heart disease and certain forms of cancer in these groups. Although few controlled studies of traditional diets exist, such as those originally consumed by Native American Indians, diseases such as diabetes and cancer were not a problem for these populations until their diets became more Westernized.

Vegetarian and vegan diets
Many people choose these diets to improve their health or to decrease the risk of chronic diseases, Others are concerned about the presence of antibiotics, hormones, pesticide residues or disease-causing agents (as with mad cow disease) that may be present in meat.

Some vegetarians object to inhumane practices of modern-day animal farming, so their reasons for being vegetarian are largely ethical

Some vegetarians believe that humans are not physiologically suited to meat eating; humans have more in common with herbivorous animals than with carnivorous animals in terms of the structure and function of the digestive tract.

Some people choose vegetarianism in an attempt to live more simply and economically, and in closer harmony with nature.

Others go vegetarian due to concerns about world hunger and the environment, because large-scale production of animal foods uses land that could otherwise be used to grow plant-based foods, and is a major cause of deforestation and soil erosion worldwide.

- It takes 7 kilograms of grain to produce a kilogram of beef,
- 4 for a kilogram of pork.
- over a third of the world's annual 640 million tons grain harvest is to fatten animals.

Vegetarians are healthier than people who eat meat. In some cases, vegans have better health than lacto-ovo vegetarians. The vegetarians were less likely to be obese, or to have high blood pressure, diabetes, arthritis or colon cancer. They were also less likely to die from heart disease.
Many factors in vegetarian diets contribute to the better health of vegetarians.

Difference between vegetarian diet and meat-eaters: Vegetarians consume more fiber as do meat-eaters, consume more antioxidants and phytochemicals such as isoflavones, much less saturated fat and cholesterol. Vegetarians do not consume heme iron, a type of iron found in meat that may increase the risk of heart disease and cancer.

Possible deficiencies
Balanced protein and calcium - Soy foods and dairy products prevent any deficiency.
Vitamin B12 - Vitamin B12-fortified foods or taking vitamin supplements on a daily basis prevents a deficiency.
Iron and iodine for strict veganes- iodized salt, fruits(0,1-0,7mg iron/100 g), vegetables (1-1,5), dried bean (7), nuts (4-8), grain products such as bread (1-5), and fortified breakfast cereals, in addition to vitamin C to improve absorption of iron.

People who live in cloudy, smoggy, or northern areas, and people who do not leave their residences, need foods fortified with vitamin D. Vegetarians who do not consume milk should be sure to get 20 to 30 minutes of sun exposure every day since this promotes the synthesis of vitamin D in the body.

Macrobiotics

[1135] Macrobiotics is based mainly on consumption of soup, unpolished brown rice or other whole grain dish and cooked vegetables.

Macrobiotic cooking prefers to add salt to a level which is comfortable for everyone, but not more. In this way, there is always some salt in meals, but not excessive amounts. For those who desire more salt, they can obtain this by adding Macrobiotic condiments like goma-sio, tekka, tamari-kombu, tsukemono (pickled vegetables).

Testing macrobiotics: Macrobiotics offers a cup of cooked, unpolished brown rice seasoned only with sun-evaporated salt and goma-sio, miso soup with vegetables and seaweed, simply-cooked and lightly salted garden vegetables, and a small cup of unsweetened, un-dyed, 3-year-old, roasted twig tea. All that is asked to chew each mouthful of food at least 50 times before swallowing, and to try this for at least 10 (ten) days, and forsake other forms of nourishment during that time.

The difference to other diets
Liquid intake: Drinking only when thirsty. When one switches to a Macrobiotic diet composed of largely vegetable-based foods that are inherently balanced, the need to dilute and re-distribute excesses and deficiencies in blood chemistry is naturally reduced dramatically.

Adding Salt to Food during Meals: Macrobiotics addresses the individualized need for added salt by including goma-sio (sesame salt) or other condiment on the table, but not plain salt. Macrobiotic cooking prefers to add salt to a level which is comfortable for everyone, but not more.

For those who desire more salt, they can obtain this by adding Macrobiotic condiments like goma-sio, tekka, tamari-kombu, tsukemono (pickled vegetables) etc. Modern dietary thinking for the most part downplays the value of salt in the human diet, and even considers it harmful and a cause of high blood pressure, heart disease, kidney disorders and other complications. This is due to the fact that refined salt can harm cells and organs because it lacks buffering trace minerals. Unrefined rock or sea salt contains trace minerals so important to buffer and assist body functions.

Macrobiotics teaches to drink tea plain:This is because tea is usually served at the end of a meal, and is not to be considered a dessert beverage, but a balanced way to end a meal. Also, the Macrobiotic way is a journey away from a way of eating that bombards the senses with exaggerated levels of sweetness, saltiness, spiciness and sourness in foods and beverages back to an appreciation of life's simplicity and subtlety.

The following are basic concepts of the Macrobiotic Way of Eating:
Consume organically and locally-grown foods in season as they become available, or foods that will store without artificial preservation or refrigeration. Alternatively, eat foods grown in the same latitude. Consume cooked whole grains primarily, and recipes made from whole grains; secondarily in quantity, cooked vegetables, adjusting proportions and preparation methods according to activity, climate and seasonal fluctuations of temperature and humidity.

Use solar-evaporated sea water salts in preparation of foods, as well as traditionally-aged miso and shoyu, umeboshi and seaweeds. Drink undyed, 3-year old roasted twig tea (kukicha) as preferred beverage.

Use unrefined, cold-pressed seed oils sparingly, made from organically-grown seeds, like sesame, corn, safflower, sunflower, flaxseed, etc.

Use roasted seeds and nuts, fruit, salads and fish occasionally as desired, in smaller quantities, as provided in season.

Use beans and bean products frequently, as primary sources of protein, along with whole grain and vegetable dishes.

Avoid all foods and beverages containing refined sweeteners, chemical dyes, synthetic flavorings or seasonings, refined oils, chemical preservatives, or made from foods grown with chemical insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, chemical fertilizers, or produced by bio-engineering or grown under green house conditions.

Avoid foods grown in, and shipped from, warmer latitudes.

Avoid "soft" (carbonated, sweetened) beverages, canned goods, alcoholic beverages, artificial sweeteners or products containing these ingredients.

Chew each mouthful thoroughly before swallowing.

Water for agriculture

All form of diets depend on farming and farming depends on water management. It is important to find a solution to diminish the impact of droughts erosion and environmental changes. The University of Chile (UCH) is charged with developing and disseminating knowledge about the nature and resolution of these problems. It is undertaking the multidisciplinary Program of Arid Lands

Chile and the State of Arizona face similar problems and issues in dealing with arid lands and the environment.

Examples include:
Rapidly increasing population pressure, which threatens agricultural sustainability. Problems with water availability, allocation, distribution, and quality.

Increasing soil erosion owing to inadequate agricultural practices.

Pollution of air, soil, and water as a result of industrial (mining and emerging agroindustry), agricultural, and urban exploitation of basic resources

Growing concern among the human population about the feasibility of maintaining and enhancing environment quality, a precondition for sustainable agricultural development.

Biosaline Agriculture Center (BAC) in Dubai is focusing its initial efforts on countries of the Arabian Peninsula. This choice is dictated by the urgent need to address water use and quality issues in this region, whose renewable water resources per person are less than 3% of the global average. The Middle East region (defined here as the North African countries from Mauritania, through the countries of the Fertile Crescent, the Arabian Peninsula, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the former Soviet republics in Central Asia) covers 14% of the total area of the world and is home to 10% of its population, yet has only 2% of the world's renewable water resources.

Renewable water resources per inhabitant are among the lowest in the world at an average of 1577 m3/ person per year, compared with the global average of 7000 m3. Sixteen of the 29 countries in the region have internal renewable water resources of less than 500 m3/person per year. Saline and brackish water resources are far more abundant than fresh water and little used at present. Bringing these resources into sustainable productive use will offer opportunities to increase food.

Water management is therefore of main interest in a global world. Some systmes are under trial to improve agriculture in arid zones.

Environmental development

Several movements are engaged in environmental development: Earth Council, best known from its program National Councils for Sustainable Development (NCSDs) supported by the United Nations Development Program with activities in:
Burkina Faso National Council for Environmental Management
Costa Rica National Council for Sustainable Development
Dominican Republic National Follow-up Commission
Mexico National Consultative Council for Sustainable Development
Philippines Philippine Council for Sustainable Development
Uganda National Environment Management Authority

Working under the premise that changes are not brought about by governments alone, the Earth Council set out after Rio to support and empower people in building a more secure, equitable and sustainable future (Agenda 21).

To bring more coherence and cooperation among the 140 major conventions relevant to the environment, and the 30 regional fishery bodies, consideration should be given to the establishment of the Inter-agency Coordination. This would cause:

Avoiding duplication of effort.
Identifying gaps in research.
Identifying opportunities for collaboration.
Promoting synergy through combined resources.

Earth Council sees the issue of enhancing "synergies" between environmental conventions at the national level as central to their core objective of sustainability.

"Sustainability" includes not only addressing economic and financial issues, but also environmental and social development issues. Sustainability means also the integration of all ecological, economical, social, political, cultural and spiritual aspects.

Burkina Faso:
The conservation of the biological diversity (priority domain of the Agreement on Biological Diversity), in a Sahelian country as Burkina Faso, cannot be conceived separately from a coherent program to fight desertification (Agreement on Combating Desertification). Also, fighting against desertification in an arid or semi-arid zone cannot be conceived without a sound water management policy (Ramsar Convention). The water resources are themselves dependent upon the climactic risks (Agreement on the Climactic Changes).

Recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy, overgrazing, soil degradation, deforestation.

Mexico:
Recommendations on ecological management and planning of land resources and climatic change with 35 items were established. The main obstacle that the CCDSs faces in Mexico is that the local authorities identify the CCDS as groups of environmentalists, exclusively. Therefore their analytical work about the relationships between the government,legislative, non-governmental, business, social and academic actors, is not considered by the local authorities.

Scarcity of hazardous waste disposal facilities; rural to urban migration; natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and of poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; deteriorating agricultural lands; serious air and water pollution in the national capital and urban centers along US-Mexico border; land subsidence in Valley of Mexico caused by groundwater depletion.

Philippines:
Uncontrolled deforestation in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in Manila; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish breeding grounds.

Agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol

These two variables also cause a negative chain of reactions in the social and natural fabric of Philippine life - tenurial problems, denudation of eco-system and watershed areas, soil erosion, siltation, and the breakdown in food chain checks and balances. Concrete manifestations of these problems are reflected in the following indicators:

1. Forest cover on the Philippines has been reduced from more than 50% to less than 24% over a 40-years period (1948-1987)
2. Only about 5% of the country's coral reefs remain in excellent condition.
3. 30%-50% of the sea grass beds in the last 50 years have been lost.
4. 80% of the mangrove areas in the last 75 years have been lost.
5. It is estimated that about 50% of national parks are no longer biologically important.

Thailand:
Air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from organic and factory wastes; deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by illegal hunting.

Uganda:
Uganda is well endowed with good climate due to a variety of factors such as its equatorial location, high elevation and the presence of numerous lakes, rivers, wetlands and mountains. This partly explains the high diversity of plants and animals and the scenic beauty of the country that is rivaled by few countries in the world. However, this beautiful landscape is rapidly deteriorating due to a growing population, which is putting more pressure on land for food production and other socio-economic development activities.Draining of wetlands for agricultural use, deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria is the result of nature exploit.

The Importance of biodiversity for Uganda is linked with tourism.

Other Agricultural Systems

Modern conventional and organic agricultural methods should be assessed in terms of sustainability. Precision Farming.

A project of the Office of Technology Assessment at the German Parliament (TAB) has started on 1.1.2004. Precision farming is based on the combination of satellite-supported navigation systems (e.g. GPS - Global Positioning System), geographical information systems (GIS), computerised control of agricultural machinery, and corresponding software for farm management. In other words, this represents modern applications of information and control technology, combined with optimisation of arable farming.

Only large farms will benefit with reduction in inputs of production factors (fertiliser, pesticides/plant protection agents). Achieving positive ecological effects depends on a range of factors, e.g. the level of production inputs, potential location-specific hazards, and the general trend in production intensity. Biotechnology-especially genetic modification-represents an important technology option for meeting the long-term food needs of developing countries. However, this technology must be used within a policy framework that recognizes the importance of managing the health, environmental, and socioeconomic risks associated with it.

Conservation agriculture Introduction: Growing world population and a rapid destruction of nature resources make it necessary to look upon alternative systems with sustainable character. One of these system is the conservation agriculture.

It is a method which tries to improve soil humidity and soil conditions. It is based on no soil inversion and reduction or total elimination of mechanical soil disturbance, except to inject seeds or plants into the soil by direct drilling techniques (Zero-Tillage,No-Tillage or No-Till).

Zero-tillage is an agricultural concept that conserves soil fertility, improves the availability of soil moisture, and increases the soil's biological resources.

Zero-tillage is often used to express all measures which are part of the conservation agriculture, such as maintenance at all times of a complete soil cover consisting of cover crops and/or crop residues and crop rotations to enhance environment and to avoid pests and diseases.
Position of FAO: FAO promotes vigorously conservation agriculture.

Plowing experiment at the ARS Research Unit in Coshocton, Ohio:Over the past four decades, no-till has done more to reduce soil erosion on more acres than any other DDR conservation practice. It improves soil structure and increases infiltration. Several years without tillage are needed to maximize these benefits.

Plowing a field once ( such as to reduce slug infestations ) causes hardly any carbon loss from the plow layer. It may take 3 to 5 consecutive years of plowing before significant losses show up. But even a year of tillage greatly damages soil structure, which increases erosion and impairs water infiltration and soil health.

According to Loyd Owens, in order to conserve carbon, farmers should choose a practice with a focus on how erosive it is, rather than on how much carbon it leaves in the soil.

Conservation Agriculture in Europe: The European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF) brings together eleven national associations which promote among Europe's farmers the soil management "best practice" aspects of conservation agriculture. With member associations in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, ECAF represents the interests of the majority of the European Union's cropped farmland.

ECAF was constituted in Brussels on 14th January 1999, as a non-profit making association, subjected to the Belgium laws. It was conceived to encourage any issue focused on maintaining the agrarian soil and its biodiversity in the context of sustainable agriculture.

Elements of conservation agriculture
No-Tillage: Instead of burning crop residues after the harvest, or ploughing biomass into the ground, everything is left in place, as soil cover. At the start of the next cropping season, the field is not ploughed at all - instead, special equipment is used to drill the seeds directly into the soil.

Besides reducing mineralization, erosion and water loss, the surface cover inhibits the germination of weeds, protects soil microorganisms and helps build up organic matter.

Less time and labour spent on land preparation, lower fuel consumption and less air pollution, reduced need for chemical inputs, and increasing yields and farm income.

Soil cover: At all time the soil should be covered with cover-crops or crop residues. Herbicides used: Weeds are controlled by desiccant herbicides applied pre-planting. Further weed control is made with post-emergent herbicide of normal used in conventional agriculture.

Crop rotation: Conservation Agriculture also requires careful planning of crop rotations, new approaches to weed control and pest management, and a range of other "precision farming" skills. Conservation Agriculture is being adopted by increasing numbers of farmers on about 58 million ha of farm land, mainly in North and South America, but also in Southern Africa and South Asia. Farmers like it because it gives them a means of conserving, improving and making more efficient use of their natural resources,

Conservation Agriculture may require the application of herbicides where there is heavy weed infestation. During the transition phase from conventional to conservation agriculture, certain soil-borne pests or pathogens might create new problems due to the change in the biological equilibrium. But once the CA environment has stabilized, it tends to be more manageable and productive than conventional agriculture. So far there has been no pest problem that could not be overcome in Conservation agriculture.


Differences Conservation Organic
  Agriculture Agriculture
Herbicides Desiccant herbicides used No chemical herbicides used
Fertilizers Chemical fertilizers are used Only organic fertilizers used
Tillage No cultivation of soil Intensive soil ploughing
IPM works on the principles of Based on a biological balance
  Integrated Pest Management  



Herbicides and fertlilizers: Conservation Agriculture doesn't prohibit the use of chemical inputs, herbicides are an important component in this system, particularly in the transition phase. until a new balance in the weed population is achieved. Farm chemicals, including fertilizer, are applied very carefully. In general, conservation agriculture farmers use fewer chemical inputs than comparable conventional farmers and, over the years, quantities of chemical inputs tend to decline.

Tillage: The adoption of CA is in contrast with the notion in force for thousands of years that soil must be cultivated before sowing or planting.

Conservation agriculture works on the principles of Integrated Pest Management in view of the importance of soil life in the system. Without the use of IPM practices, the build up of soil biota would not be possible.

Monocropping: under zero-tillage is possible, but not recommended, because - just as in conventional farming - it creates pest problems. The system has also been adapted for vegetables, root crops, grain crops as sugar cane. Potatoes, beets, cassava, fruit and vines can also be grown using CA techniques.

So far the only areas where the concept has not been successfully adapted are arid areas with extreme water shortages and low production of organic matter.

The Gulf region, however, would benefit of this system using plastic foils instead of organic matters to cover the fields. Changing later to traditional CA.

Conservation agriculture adapted to Gulf region would reduce significantly water evaporation. Excessive irrigation would be avoided and progressive salinity of the soil could be retarded. This system is broadly used in heavy cropping of cucumber in Germany with best results in last drought periods.

Livestock can be fully integrated into conservation agriculture, by exploiting the recycling of nutrients. This reduces the environmental problems caused by concentrated, intensive livestock production. The farmer can introduce forage crops into the crop rotation, thus broadening it and reducing pest problems.

Forage crops can often be used as dual-purpose crops for fodder and soil cover. However, conflicts between the use of organic matter to feed the animals or to cover the soil has to be resolved, particularly in arid areas with low production of biomass.

Conservation Agriculture is being accepted in tropical climates such as Latin America, rather than in temperate climates like Europe. Generally, pressure from environmental indicators are not yet taken seriously enough. ECAF (European Conservation Agriculture Federation)

Conservation Agriculture has great potential in sub-Saharan Africa because it can control erosion, gives more stable yields and reduces labour. In the South Asian rice-wheat area, there have been 50% increases in net benefits through the direct seeding of wheat in the rice crop or stubble, compared with conventional tillage before seeding.

Consevation Agriculture requires management skills and equipment that might not be available, especially to small-scale farmers, technical and financial support is needed.
To get started with cnservation agriculture, the minimum a farmer needs, is a zero tillage planter. Buying one without knowing the system or even having seen it, is a risk that few farmers are prepared to take and poor populations will never succeed in getting one.

Dissemination of the concept of Conservatory Agriculture in Latin America, has turned out a major success. Africa, Central Asia and the Indo-Ganges Plains are now on target.

Zero-tillage
Special seeding equipment should be used. During tillage elimination herbicides will be necessary. Specialized drills to get the seeding in the earth are necessary. Straw and chaff must be well spread across the width of the swath at harvest.


Land 1999-2000 Hectares
USA 19,760,000
Brazil 13,470,000
Australia 8,640,000
Canada 4,080,000
Mexico 800.000
Bolivia 200.000
Chile 96.000
Colombia 70.000
Uruguay 50.000
Venezuela 50.000



Government farm programs and market conditions are sometimes against good crop rotation practices. Disease, weed and insect control must be kept in mind. Diseases are a major concern and must be handled with by rotation and other management practices.

The ideal crop rotation alternates between cereal crops and oilseeds or legumes from one year to the next. For example, a wheat canola barley flax rotation allows to avoid disease carryover from one crop to the next. It allows the control of volunteer plants from the previous crop and the control of weeds which might not have been controlled by herbicides used the year before. The yearly switch from cereals to broadleaf crops makes it possible to break the cycle of insects and diseases attacking a crop grown continuously on the same field.

Residue of wheat contains survival structures for many pathogens such as tan spot fungus, septoria leaf and glume blotch fungi, scab or head blight. Zero-tillage increases risks of diseases because the fungal structures are not incorporated into the soil where microbes degrade straw and destroy the disease organism. Alternating cereal/broadleaf rotation will help to get this under control.


Decades of Zero Tillage

In the 40s - The chemical 2.4 D released to farmers.
In the 50s - Grammoxone synthesis (UK: 1955).
In the 60s - Grammoxone released to farmers in 1961.
In Brazil: late 60s and early 70s.


The 70s ZT started in Paraná. Machinery development. Release of modern herbicides beginning with glyphosate purpose-built herbicides). ZT in the decade was more expensive than CT. In the 80s - Cover crops and crop rotations, weed control mechanization introduced. Better understanding of ZT system. Direct costs turned equal to conventional tillage (late 80s) First university chair in Zero Tillage (Paraná).

In the 90s - Cover crops for Cerrado were introduced.

EMBRAPA and "Friends of the Land" clubs started project of Water Resources Research and extension courses on ZT increasing interest by Universities.

The wet/dry tropical savannah region, known as the Cerrado, covers approx. 204 million hectares in tropical Brazil. Its development is regarded by Dr. Norman Borlaug - the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize for his plant breeding work that founded the Green Revolution - as the world's most important agricultural expansion

zone of the 20th century. But that development depends mainly on soil improvements. The areas of pastures, annual crops, permanent crops and forestry is not less than 47 million hectares. The recent and rapid adoption of Zero Tillage in this region has been phenomenal.

Zero-Tillage in Brazil:
It began with the implementation of Zero Tillage by one farmer in 1972 on less than 500 hectares. By 1980 about 200,000 hectares were recorded, mainly in the subtropical conditions of the State of Paraná. Since then - mostly within the last 9 years - the growth in area has been exponential, with now over 9,000,000 hectares in the country as a whole, about two-thirds of which to date have been in the southerly States of Paraná, Sta. Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, and Mato Grosso do Sul. Most of the other one third of the area under ZT has developed in the subhumid tropical region of the Cerrado, from almost nothing in 1990 to about about 3,000,000 hectares to date.

The methodology has recently begun to spread also into the humid tropical Amazon region, where positive initial results are reported from the States of Mato Grosso, Rondonia, Roraima, Acre, Amapá and Pará. Indications are that spread continues very rapidly in all areas. The technology thus works in Brazil, both agronomically and economically, in a range of diverse soil/climate conditions.

It is notable that the expansion of ZT has most effectively been by farmer-to-farmer spread Brazil-wide, particularly through the affiliated network of 'Friends of the Land Clubs' and State Extension services of Brazil's southern States and Mato Grosso do Sul. It includes the land of small farmers with manual planters or animal-drawn implements up to large mechanised units of 5,000 hectares or more.

The following benefits are recorded to have flowed from zero-tillage farming, both individuals and wider society:

- Conservation of bio-diversity in soil, terrestrial and aquatic fauna and flora;
- Sustainable high yield levels, resulting in lessened pressure to open new land;
- Heightened environmental awareness among farmers;
- Winter feed, and shelter for fauna;
- Economies of 10-20% in use of water in irrigation;
- Undecomposed crop residues acting as a carbon sink, estimated as fixing about 1 tonne of carbon per hectare;
- Fossil fuel use reduced by 40-70- Enhanced food security through greater resistance to drought effects;
- Reduction of erosion losses by around 90%, with many consequential benefits:

-Significantly less silting of surface waters including reservoirs for hydroelectricity and irrigation;
-Virtual elimination of pollution of these waters by soil-applied agricultural chemicals;
-More groundwater recharge, and less flooding:
"Zero Tillage is the only macro-economic solution which can respond to the conflicting demands of more food at lower prices while ensuring sustainability - in fact land quality is continually increasing under ZT." (Landers, 1999).

Zero-tillage and environment
Here again the modification of environment due to extreme application of manure and other animal wastes of heavy breeding can be compared with the problems created by sugar cane in the sugar-cane belt with with the spread of Cholera epidemics.
Zero-tillage could be an instrument to diminish the impact an the environment from heavy breeding populations.

Zero-tillage, a hope for the Amazon region
There are many millions of hectares of degraded pastures in the Amazon and Cerrado regions. ZT technology now exists to turn these pastures into productive cropland, which would reduce the pressure to open new lands for crop production. Especially relevant is the potential to rotate these crop areas with highly productive pastures, allowing absorption of herd growth without the need to form new pastures on newly cleared land. This potential is so great that even a total ban on clearing would not have a significant impact on agricultural production for many years. It should be possible to promote a policy of incentives to this end, supported by international funding.

The incentives would have to be adequate to cover extraction of old stumps and leveling of irregularities caused by erosion so that the reclamation of these old cleared areas would become significantly more profitable than clearing new land.

Diseases and pests
End-of-season leaf diseases in late-planted maize (especially Phaeospheria and some new ones for which there is no resistance);

- In the Dourados municipality of Mato Grosso do Sul, the ZT Club reported a reversion of 50% of area to CT because of the chestnut soil beetle. This pest is extremely erratic in its appearance and can be controlled by insecticide at planting.
- Control of persistent weeds where herbicide control is very expensive.

A more diverse rotation is the solution to these ills.

Some strategies and concepts that could be examined are :
- Legume-enriched fallows or grass/legume mixtures for weed control, biomass generation, and nitrogen accumulation, taking advantage of sporadic rains; these could be selectively grazed as protein banks in an emergency;
- Legal provisions in rental agreements to give sharecroppers or tenants the use of their land all year round without the obligation of having to allow the landowner's cattle to graze in the dry season, and with the provision for a fallow period, all within a fenced area;
- Large paddock grazing of livestock with management of native species for maximum re-generation and fodder production; for example Stylosanhtes humilis is native in the region and responds with heavy seed set under zero grazing in this period;
- A rotation where a long fallow generates high-lignin and durable residues for a short crop sequence; A total ban on burning; (Villagers in Madagascar passed a local law forbidding the burning of the savannah because they had learnt to cut and carry this material for mulching annual crops under Zero Tillage; in the Northeast of Brazil, this no-burning strategy is already customary since fire destroys the fodder for the landlords' cattle!)

The mulch cover of Zero Tillage and Conservation Agriculture in semi-arid areas would improve the soil water balance and promote higher yields, while the greater infiltration capacity would ensure more rainfall stored in the soil profile when the heavy rains, which do occasionally occur in semi-arid areas, would run off under Conventional Tillage.

Sri Lanka, the price of conventional farming
The Polonnaruwa district, in the North Central Province, is one of the best areas in Sri Lanka for crops. It has a favourable climate and good soil, backed by a network of irrigation canals providing a regular supply of water. But 30 of its small farmers committed suicide in 1995.

They struggled in vain to get the minimum needed to keep their heads above water. They had borrowed heavily to buy chemicals and fertilizers and hire tractors and were now unable to pay back the debts. Modern agricultural methods have eroded fertile land in Sri Lanka, marginalized poor farmers, indigenous farming knowledge was lost in the name of scientific progress. Local food varieties and farming systems, adapted to environmental conditions had been abandoned

Alternative systems must be reintroduced in the areas where conventional agriculture has not been successful.

Harmony with the environment
G. K. Upawansa, is rediscovering and promoting indigenous farming systems in Nawalapitiya, some 40 kilometres from Kandy.

Rice is the staple food of Sri Lankans. Nearly 80 per cent of the population live in rural areas and paddy (rough rice) is the main peasant crop. [1140]

Reduced yelds of less than one and half tons per acre, compared with normal three tons of conventional paddy rice cultivation in Shi Lankla are seen by
G. K. Upawansa to be caused by indiscriminate agro chemical application and the effects of soil erosion caused by inappropriate land preparation techniques responsible for low yelds. He shows alternatives to further disruption of agriculture and new techniques for small peasants. [1139] Working together with a group of non-governmental organizations in Sri Lanka, Upawansa developed an alternative process of agriculture. the basis of rural subsistence.This consists of:


Items Conventional agriculture Chemical-Free Farming-
    Organic farming in Sri
    Lanka
     
Intensive tillage Slowly degrades farmland Minimal tillage is beneficial
    to farmland
     
Chemical ferlizers Kill microbes in soil Natural resources and
  affecting ability to fix atmosphere nitrogen.
  nitrogen.  
     
Pesticides Destroy insects and Natural predators of crop
  animals which maintain a pests build up.
  check on pests. Wipe out  
  insect predators.  
  Resistance to pesticides  
  develops.  
     
Weed control Keeps the land free of Weeds harbour predators of
  weeds as they compete crop pests and enrich and
  with crops for nutrients conserve the soil.
  and harbour pests.  
     
Trees Remove trees to allow more