See also: Related OurFood News
Subsections
Research and intensive supervision of food has widened the knowledge about
the physiology of nutrition. The activity of newspaper, broadcasting and television searching
for sensational news have mobilized the food industry in order to optimize their products.
The interest of the industry on nutrition physiology developed a great know
how in the sector of laboratory analysing methods, in processing technologies,
in packaging material and in storage.
All these efforts resulted in better quality and safety.
The consumer, however needs more information. Many basic rules for healthy nutrition are not known and misleading information are spread by commercials
seeking sales increase resulting sometimes in extreme reactions of certain
groups of consumers.
Many pills and powders are
sold in super market in health stores and in pharmacies. They promise wonders
for much money without success:
L-carnitin
Bodybuilder were the first to use L-carnitin as fat-burner.
L-carnitin works only with long time persistent muscle training, together with fat reduced food. L.carnitin under these condition can act as a biocarrier
in the energy system of the mitochondria of the muscle cells.
Without physical activity fat is not burned. Even carnitin cannot change that. Oxygen must burn the fatty acids and the resulting energy must be used.
L-carnitin can be obtained by the body through synthesis using methionine and lysin in liver and kidneys.
Carnitin is present in bovine and in sheep meat. That is the etymology of
carnitin (Carne-latin=meat).
Vegetarians could get an undersupply of carnitin. However there are no signs of over weight because vegetarians eat less fat. The use of pills containing carnitin is therefore unnecessary.
Tyrosine
Tyrosine is an hormone of the thyroid gland. It is supposed to stimulate
burning of food components. Tyrosine is sometimes prescribed by physician to compensate an insufficient function of the thyroid gland gland. In normal
persons the use of tyrosine can lead to hyperfunctioning of the thyroid gland
gland causing insomnia, restlessness, heart throbbing, tachycardia, trembling,
fear and overexcitability as well as intensive sweat.
Instead of using tyrosine normal persons should have more activity.
Genistein
Genistein is a phytoestrogen (plant hormone) found in soybeans being of great
importance in human and in animal nutrition. The fertility of sheep and birds
were found to be reduced by high amount of genistein. It may be a natural
defence of plants against natural enemies.
Genistein has reduced affinity to estrogen receptors and thus a reduced activity compared with estrogen.
As the use of soy beans in nutrition is increasing high levels of genistein in blood stream is to be expected. Importance has the nutrition in Asia which
has 50 times in normal nutrition and 400 times more genistein in baby food
with soy bean diet than European baby food and normal nutrition respectively.
It is however interesting that there have been no reports on negative activities with such nutrition. A certain protection against women Breast
cancer is brought into combination with an interference of genistein in the
hormone household interfering in the menstrual cycle of Asiatic women.
[2] Hongwei Si and Dongmin Liu studied the effect of genistein, an isoflavone from soy. They
found that dietary supplementation of this phytoestrogen may increase levels
of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS)wich is an enzyme linked to higher
endothelial-derived nitric oxide (NO) which regulates the vascular tone and
atherogenesis, improving vascular health in hipertensive rats.
Hypertension, blood pressure higher than 140 and 90 mmHg, is
a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease Nitric oxide NO is a messenger molecule by
which the endothelium of blood vessels communicates with the vessel's muscles
to relax. Blood pressure and the risk of infarction and strokes are reduced.
The authors concluded that genistein improves hypertension by excerting direct
genomic effects on the vascular wall leading to increased synthesis of enzyme
eNOS improving vascular health and reducing hypertension.
Dairy foods, fruits and vegetables are rich in Potassium which is now being associated with a reduction of stroke risk, according to a meta-analysis of studies conducted by Larsson, Orsini and Wolk 2011, which included total of 8695 stroke cases.
For every1000-mg/day increase in potassium intake, the risk of stroke decreased by 11%. The authors stress that the protective action of potassium is limited to ischemic strokes, the leading type of stroke, which is caused by an interruption of blood current to the brain. No association was found with hemorrhagic stroke which results from ruptured vessels in the brain.
These data support foregoing studies which suggested that potassium plays an active role in reducing ischemic strokes incidence. [5]
A healthy lifestyle, such as lowering the blood pressure, reducing salt intake, controlling body weight and keeping alcohol consumption, together with increased potassium rich foods intake are a good strategy to reduce the risk of stroke, say the authors.
Healthy diet rich in nutrients like vitamin C, folate, magnesium, Vitamin B2, iron, vitamin A carotenoids, dietary fibre, and also calcium, may increase the stroke reducing effect of potassium. [6]
Raymond Bergan and colleagues found that genistein inhibits prostata cancer
cell detachment and cell invasion in vitro by blocking activation of p38 MAP
kinases molecules.
The authors developed and animal model to evaluate the antimetastatic drug
efficacy of genistein. Usind this model genistein was found to decreased
metastases by 96%, but did not alter tumor growth. Dietary concentrations of
genistein can inhibit prostata cancer cell metastasis. Studies of antimetastatic
efficacy in man are warranted and are under way.
Natural dietary approaches to menopause disorders
The natural hormone replacement therapy
concepts came about as a result of population studies in Asia. The outcomes of
these studies were that many menopausal disorders of Western civilisation (1
to 5 mg/day of soy isoflavones) were absent in the East due to large amount of
soybean products (daily soy isoflavone intake of estimated 50 mg/day)
associated with a low fat intake.
Entering menopause a diet is being recommended being moderate in protein and
complex carbohydrates, with 15 to 20 % of the calories coming from fat.
Saturated fat from animal products should be low, unsaturated fats should come
from cold water fish (salmon, tuna, mackerel and herring). A good portion of
the diet should come from soybean products, such as tofu. To keep bowel
bacteria in balance Lactobacillus acidophilus should be included in
the program.
Isoflavone intake amounts
The US
National Guideline Clearinghouse (NGC) suggests the following isoflavone
intake amounts: [8]
Optimal cholesterol reduction seems to require approximately 50 mg/day of
isoflavones; this amount would be found in approximately 25 g/day of soy protein.
For effects of arterial compliance amounts of 40-80 mg/day isoflavones are
needed.
For antioxidant effect on lipids 10 mg/day may be effective.
For bone health a minimum of 50 mg/day of isoflavones are needed.
For hot flashes and vasomotor symptoms 40-80 mg/day of isoflavones were used in studies.
In eleven studies selected for a meta-analysis Kyoko Taku and colleagues 2007 found that soy isoflavones significantly reduced
serum total and LDL cholesterol but did not change HDL cholesterol and
triacylglycerol. The authors concluded that soy protein containing enriched or
depleted isoflavones also significantly improved lipid profiles. Reductions in
LDL cholesterol were larger in hypercholesterolemic than in normocholesterolemic
subjects, but no significant linear correlations were observed between reductions and the starting values.
Welsh and colleagues 2010 assessed the association between consumption of
added sugars and blood lipid levels in adults. Carbohydrates have been
associated with dyslipidemia, a lipid profile known to increase cardiovascular
disease risk.
The authors found that High Density Lipoprotein (HDL), which lower blood
cholesterol, decreases with higher sugar intake. The harmful blood levels,
such as Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) and the ratios of triglycerides to
HDL-Cholesterol increased with high added sugar intake.
The researchers say that fructose is the main component of added sugars. It is
probably responsible for the increase of liver production of fat,
triglycerides and Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL). The authors call for dietary guidelines that target a reduction in consumption of added sugar.
The UK Food Standards Agency is active in promoting awareness on the necessity to
cut sugar recommending that food manufacturers reduce saturated fat in foods such as biscuits, cakes, buns, chocolates and added sugar in soft drinks. [11]
Reducing saturated fat, sugar and salt content industrial food may have a
significant effect on growing obesity and coronary diseases.
Antinutritional factors of soy and faba beans [12]
Antinutritional factors of soy and faba
beans are trypsin inhibitors, glysinin, B-conglysinin, oligosacarides,
saponines, and lectines. These factors are reduced during crushing and
processing of the soy beans.
According to El-Shemy and colleagues 2000, antinutritional factors such as
trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, and tannins were detected in soy bean and
faba bean seeds They report that phytic acid content and trypsin inhibitor
activity were higher in soy bean seeds than in faba bean seeds. The authors
found that removing the cortex a high concentration of antinutritional factors
such as tannins could be removed turning soy bean and faba bean suitable for
human diet or industrial products.
Iodine and algae
Algae (Fucus vesiculosus)are sometimes used to increase the supply of iodine.
and are sometimes added to diet pills and diet powders.
Iodine is needed for the synthesis of thyroid gland hormones which regulate the energy household.
Iodine can be obtained from marine fish, iodised kitchen salt, and food prepared with iodinated salt.
The daily intake of 180 to 200 mcg is recommended. Increasing the intake over this value no further activity on the fat burning machine is takes place.
Appetite depressant
Ephedrine, Norephedrine, Fenfluramine can cause heart throbbing, restlessness, insomnia, and hypertension.
They can cause addiction.
Laxatives
Long time use of laxatives leads to an important loss of potassium ions which on its turn increases the intestinal inactivity.
Laxatives increase the problems. More physical activity and enough water during meals can solve it.
Cynarine
The bitter constituent and enzyme of chicory can promote the production of biliary acids which act on the digestion of fatty acids.
Cynarine does not destroy fat as often is being told. Physical training is better than cynarine.
Bromelain and papain
These enzymes are found in tropical fruits such as pineapple, papaya and mango.
They help the digestion of food increasing the absorption. In this way these enzymes do not reduce or destroy fat. As a matter of fact the assimilation of the food is optimized. This has nothing to do with weight reduction.
Herbal metabolism boosters
Some herbal metabolism boosters can temporarily cause weight drop. However,
they do not eliminate excess of fat. Most of them contain stimulants which increase the central nervous system and decrease appetite. They are mild diuretics . They can cause unpleasant side effects such as dizziness, nausea, and frequent urination. As soon the administration of these drugs is ended the weight returns to its original height.
- Instead of appetite depressant chew longer during meals. Eat slowly.
Drink a glass of water before meals and eat a great portion of salad before the main dish.
- Instead of laxatives eat fibre rich food, drink enough water and make physical training
- Instead of dehydration pills use less salt in the kitchen. Eat more vegetables and fruit juices, rice containing much potassium
- Instead of enzymes eat protein and vitamins rich foods. The body can produce sufficient enzymes from proteins and vitamins which exist in nature.
- Instead of carnitin reduce the fat in your meals.
Several studies suggest a positive association between breastfeeding and
intellectual development in childhood.
Mortensen and colleagues noted in a study published in 2003, that test scores
suggested a dose-response relationship for breastfeeding during the first nine months of life and adult intelligence. The researchers found a significant positive association between duration of breastfeeding and intelligence. They conclude that duration of breastfeeding may correlate with maternal intelligence and with the quality of mother-child interaction, and that nutrients in breastmilk may have long-term positive effects on cognitive and intellectual development. [14]
The Early Nutrition Programming Project EARNEST
is an European collaborative investigation into the long-term consequences of early nutrition by metabolic programming and will work until 2010 being coordinated by Professor Koletzko of the Children's Hospital, University of Munich, Germany.
It investigates early nutrition programming to enable a better understanding of the extent to which nutritional influences in early life can programme a person's development and metabolism in adulthood, and studies the consumer attitudes to early nutrition programming and their economic importance.
Important questions are targeted such as beneficial effects of maternal diet on visual, motor and cognitive development, and cardiovascular risk factors, including obesity propensity and type II diabetes for the child.
Also on the agenda is the safety of prenatal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supply with regard to growth, infection rates, and occurrence of other potential adverse effects, the relation between prenatal (maternal) and postnatal (infant) dietary factors and how they predict early disease markers and risk factors for chronic diseases, including chryptorchism, early growth patterns, psychomotor developmental milestones, atopic diseases and cognitive development.
One point is the importance of promotion of breastfeeding, together with the development of the right composition of infant formula and the appropriate complementary food. The Program also wants to determine when are the critical windows during early development when maternal nutrition programmes can influence one or more of the following chronic degenerative diseases; obesity, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, renal disease, immune function and cancer. A possible genotype dependence of these outcomes is to be elucidated. EARNEST also assesses the combined analyses of the Danish National Birth Cohort (DNBC) and Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort (NMCC) databases. The aim is to determine the information sources used by parents to acquire knowledge about matters related to infant care and nutrition in selected EU countries, and evaluate the accuracy of available information on early nutritional programming. The
knowledge generated by EARNEST has great potential for application in new and improved dietetic products and thus for creation of wealth and employment in Europe, and studies the modification of infant formulae for commercial application. Such as innovative approaches to inulin-type oligosaccharides and a recombinant human protein, both of which are natural constituents of breast milk.
Giovannucci and colleagues in a study, found that excessive energy intake
tends to increase circulating levels of insulin and free insulin-like growth
factor-1 (IGF-I), which may increase risk of some cancers that are common in
Western countries. Greater body mass index, lower physical activity, and a
Western dietary pattern were independentpredictors of higher plasma C-peptide
levels. A C-peptide score, based on these variables, was positively related to
risk of Western-related cancers, but not to other cancer types. Height was
also only related to Western-related cancers.
The authors concluded that maximal growth in the pre-adult period and hyperinsulinaemia during adulthood may largely underlie the excess risk of some cancers that are common in Western populations. A substantial proportion of these cancers may be modifiable in adulthood, through alterations in body weight, sedentary behaviour, and dietary patterns that stimulate hyperinsulinaemia. The risk for Western cancers could be cut by about 50% if the entire population had an adult height and C-peptide score comparable to those values seen in the lowest decile of the population.
Dietary fibre
Dietary fibre are a variety of carbohydrates which are not hydrolysed by the digestive system of the small intestine. They comprise polysaccharides which are not starch, Oligosaccharides and lignin. They are found in vegetables, fruits, wheat bran, oat bran, sugar beet pulp, Guar gum, locust bean gum, gum arabic, Psyllium, carrageenan,gum tragacanth (Astragalus spec., alginic acid, xanthan gum, dextran, lactulose, karaya gum ( Sterculia urens)
)
Dietary fibre have great nutritional values for intestinal bacteria in the colon.
Dietary fibre have influence in the metabolism of the carbohydrates, lipids and minerals they act protective against colon cancer.
Recommended daily intake of dietary fibre
It schould be at least 30 g/day.
European and other industrial countries daily intake of dietary fibre is around 20 g/day. The intake of food rich in dietary fibre should therefore be increased.
Recommended composition of the dietary fibre
- 20 g macromolecular dietary fibre of polysaccharides of not starch type. 5 g of them should be insoluble.
- 15 g of resistant starch
- 3-4 g oligofructose
Interest in dietary fibre has been increasing with scientific studies linking increased intake to reduced risks of cancers such as colorectal, and cardiovascular disease. According to the Columbia University showed the average intake in the US was about 12.5 grams a day, instead of 32 grams recommended by the US National Fibre Council.
According to Nely Vergara-Valencia from the Centro de Desarrollo de Productos Bioticos del IPN Mango dietary fibre might be an alternative for development of products with balanced dietary fibre components and low glycaemic response, aimed to people with special carbohydrate/energy requirements. Unripe mangoes have promising chemical composition, soluble and insoluble fibre content, antioxidant activity and of extractable polyphenols.
The concentrated extract of mango was tested in cookies and bread with a better balance of soluble and insoluble dietary fibre compared to control bakery products.
The new products had higher total dietary fibre that respective controls, and the products maintained significant antioxidant capacity associated to their extractable polyphenols.
Mango peel from mango products processing is being discarded whilst being a
valuable source of antioxidants. Prasada Rao and colleagues 2007 studied the
improvement in the nutraceutical properties of the biscuits with added mango
peel powder.
The wheat flour incorporated with mango peel powder showed an increase in
water absorption, and the biscuits incorporated with 10 per cent mango peel
presented a high content of total and soluble dietary fiber, increased
polyphenols and carotenoid content, and improved antioxidant properties. The
authors concluded that mango flavoured biscuits produced with wheat flour and mango peel powder are dietary fibre enriched. [17]
Huaidong Du and colleagues
2009 found that a 10-g/d higher total fiber intake correlated with -39 g/y for weight change and -0.08 cm/y for waist circumference change for 10-g/d
higher total fibre, A 10-g/d higher fiber intake from cereals was associated
with -77 g/y weight change and -0.10 cm/y waist circumference change for
fibre from cereals, but no weight change with fruit and vegetable fiber,
compared with total dietary fiber and cereal fibre. The authors stress that
higher intake of fibre, particularly that of cereals may prevent body-weight
and waist circumference gain.
Maribel Ovando-Martinez and colleagues 2008 point out that unripe banana, with
a high proportion of undigestible compounds, such as resistant starch and
non-starch polysaccharides, might be used as flour to increase resistant
starch and antioxidant phenolics contents of pasta (spaghetti) of high quality.
The resulting spaghetti had an increased indigestible fraction and antioxidant
capacity, and low rate of carbohydrate enzymatic hydrolysis with low-glycaemic
index,compared with traditional products.
According to the authors the high antioxidant properties of unripe banana is
due to its condensed tannins or proanthocyanidins.
The authors stress that this would also create a new use for the excess of
production and large quantities of bananas which are otherwise lost.
Proanthocyanidins, also known as procyanidin oligomeric proanthocyanidin
(OPC), pycnogenol, leukocyanidin and leucoanthocyanin, they are flavanols.
Proanthocyanidins are polymers of flavan-3-ols, also referred to as
"Condensed Tannins", with astringent flavour. Their free radical scavenging
properties may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, blood
clotting and certain types of trimeric PAs may protect against urinary tract
infections. USDA provides a database for proanthocyanidins for epidemiologists
and health researchers to estimate the intakes and to investigate
relationships between intakes and reduction in the risks of various diseases.
The database contains values for 205 food items for proanthocyanidins listed
as monomers, dimers, trimers, 4-6 mers (tetramers, pentamers and hexamers),
7-10 mers (heptamers, octamers, nonamers and decamers) and Polymers (DP>10).
Polyphenols composed of more than one phenol unit or building block per
molecule. Polyphenols are generally divided into hydrolyzable tannins (gallic
acid esters of glucose and other sugars) and phenylpropanoids, such as
lignins, flavonoids, and condensed tannins. (See chemical formulas at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphenolics)
Reed and colleagues 2002 found that combining extracts of grape seed and grape
skin, rich in grape polyphenolics, individually shown to inhibit platelet
aggregation, might enhance their individual antiplatelet effects. Feeding the
extracts individually did not affect platelet aggregation, whereas feeding them
in combination in combination as found in in red wine, grape juice exhibit a
greater antiplatelet effect than when present individually.
Polyphenols include plant antioxidants such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, proanthocyanidins and resveratrol. Chen et al. 2011 report that oxidative stress may be involved in the ageing process and some other diseases. Antioxidants of fruits and vegetables such as tomatoes, broccoli, blueberries, and apples may help to reduce the effects of the free radicals extending the life span in animals such as fruit flies. The authors found that apple polyphenols increased the average lifespan of fruit flies and improved their motility like walking, climbing and moving Polyphenols of apples also reduced the level of age related markers up-regulation of genes SOD1, SOD2, and CAT and down-regulation of MTH in old flies. The authors write that apple polyphenols interact with interaction with gene expressions of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), methuselah (MTH), Rpn11, and cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) subunits III and Vib.
The authors concluded that the antiaging activity of apple polyphenols is linked to its interaction with genes SOD, CAT, MTH, and Rpn11.
Several foregoing studies had referred to beneficial effects of certain polyphenols. In 2003 Huxley and Neil wrote that high dietary intake of flavonols from a small number of fruits and vegetables, tea and red wine may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease [22]. Cutler et al. 2008 found that flavonoids of certain plant foods may reduce the risk of lung cancer among current and past women smokers, probably due to the antioxidant, antiestrogenic and antiproliferative properties of these compounds [23].
The effect of polyphenols on blood sugar was studied by Hanhineva and colleagues 2010. The authors point out that quercetin and other flavonoids inhibit carbohydrate-digesting enzymes and polyphenols reduce the absorption of glucose. Other possible mechanisms cited by the authors are stimulation of insulin secretion, modulation of glucose release from the liver, activation of insulin receptors and glucose uptake in the insulin-sensitive tissues, and modulation of intracellular signalling pathways and gene expression. The authors call for more studies and human trials on the effect of polyphenols on type 2 diabetes [24].
Berries such chokeberries, cranberries, blueberries, and strawberries were found in different studies to be rich in anthocyanins, micronutrients and fibre. These compounds reduce cardiovascular risks, LDL oxidation, lipid peroxidation and improve the total plasma antioxidant capacity, the dyslipidemia, and the glucose metabolism. Basu, Rhone and lyons 2010 write that these beneficial effects may derive from an upregulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase, decreased activities of carbohydrate digestive enzymes, decreased oxidative stress, and inhibition of inflammatory gene expression and foam cell formation [25].
Catherine C. Neto reviewed the existing research on the anticancer properties of
fruit of cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon). The author found that polyphenolic extracts rich in proanthocyanidins inhibit the growth and
proliferation of breast, colon, prostate, lung, and other tumors, as do flavonols,
proanthocyanidin oligomers, and triterpenoids isolated from the fruit. The unique
combination of phytochemicals found in cranberry fruit may produce synergistic
health benefits. The proanthocyanidins of cranberry also prevent urinary tract
infections, inhibiting the adhesion of Escherichia coli bacteria. Also
inhibition of the adhesion of Helicobacter pylori to human gastric mucus was
noted, reducing the risk of gastric cancer.
Quesada and colleagues 2007 found that procianidins inhibit the
metallothionein gene expression in the liver by 70 per cent. Inhibition of the
metalothionein genes expression was found dose dependent to grape seed
procyanidins extract used in the study. The authors stress that metallothione
in genes are direct targets of procyanidins action, both in vivo and in vitro,
in hepatic cells. The authors elucidate the mechanisms how procyanidin
achieves the beneficial effects.
Metallothionein plays an important role in transcription factor regulation.
Increased expression of metallothioneins were found in some cancers of the
breast, colon, kidney, liver, lung, nasopharynx, ovary, prostate, mouth, salivary
gland, testes, thyroid and urinary bladder. Lower levels of metallothioneins
were found in hepatocellular carcinoma and liver adenocarcinoma. [28]
Woodward and colleagues 2004 stress that the French have a lower incidence of
cardiovascular disease than Americans. Researchers say this is an effect of
grape polyphenolic of red wine consumed by French. The authors, however do not
recommend red wine, neither red grape juice, because of the pro-oxidant and
pro-inflammatory effect of alcohol in wine and the high sugar content of the
juice which might harm diabetic or promote obesity. The authors recommend
therefore polyphenolic extracts of grapes as an alternative to wine or purple
grape juice.
John Shi and colleagues 2003 point out that grape seeds contain 5-8 per cent of polyphenols, proanthocyanidins including flavonoids, such as gallic acid, the
monomeric flavan-3-ols catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin,
and epicatechin 3-0-gallate, and procyanidin dimers, trimers, and more highly
polymerized procyanidins. The antioxidant effect of Proanthocyanidins is 20 times
greater than vitamin E and 50 times greater than vitamin C. The most abundant
phenolic compounds isolated from grape seed are catechins, epicatechin,
procyanidin, and some dimers and trimers.
Puangpronpitag and colleagues 2008 analysed the seeds and marcs of Antidesma
thwaitesianum Müll. Arg. or mao which, a waste product of the production of juice and wine in Thailand. The authors looked on the polyphenolic content and
their radical scavenging activities of the polyphenols and proanthocyanidins.
The researchers found that the protective effect of seeds and marcs of mao on
lipid peroxidation is as strong as grape seed proanthocyanidin extract, and
stress that mao waste products may be a good source of polyphenolics.
El-Ashmawy and colleagues 2007 studied the antioxidant effect of Marjoram
volatile oil (Origanum majorana L., Lamiaceae) and grape seed extract (Vitis
vinifera L., Vitaceae), when simultaneously administratedwith ethanol. They found
that the ethanol toxicity induced significant alterations in the histological
structures of the testis, liver and brain, an increase in lipid peroxidation and
decrease in the level of glutathione in the testis, liver and brain. The
co-administration of marjoram volatile oil and grape seed extract reduced
significantly the effects of ethanol toxicity on male fertility, liver and brain
tissues. The authors concluded that the extracts of both plants are indicated to
control oxidative damages. Glutathione is a tripeptide
that is produced naturally all the time by the body. It is a combination of
three simple building blocks of protein or amino acids, L-cysteine, glycine and
L-glutamic acid. It contains an unusual peptide linkage between the amine group
of cysteine and the carboxyl group of the glutamate side chain. Glutathione, an
antioxidant, helps protect cells from reactive oxygen species such as free
radicals and peroxides.
Prakash and Srinivasan report that spices, such as black pepper, piperine, red
pepper, capsaicin, and ginger enhance the activities of antioxidant enzymes -
superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase, and
glutathione-S-transferase - in both gastric and intestinal mucosa. They have a
gastrointestinal protective effect and alleviate the diminished activities of
antioxidant enzymes in gastric and intestinal mucosa induced by alcohol.
Tamoxifen and raloxifen are selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs),
drugs used in the treatment of breast cancer.
Tumor cells are known for their high requirement of glutamine (Gln) that serves
multiple functions within the cells, including nutritional and energy source, as
well as one of the precursors for the synthesis of natural antioxidant
glutathione (GSH). The authors found that one of the mechanisms for their
anti-neoplastic properties may also cause adverse side effects inhibiting the
glutamine uptake in a dose-dependent manner through inhibition of ASCT2
glutamine transporter resulting in oxidative stress which causes the death of the
cancer cells.
The tumor suppressor p53 gene regulates cellular energy metabolism and
antioxidant defense mechanisms. Hu and colleagues 2010 found the glutaminase 2
(GLS2) mediates these two functions of the p53 protein.
GLS2 regulates cellular energy metabolism by increasing production of
glutamate and alpha-ketoglutarate, and antioxidant defence function in cells
are rugulated by increasing reduced glutathione (GSH) levels and decreasing
reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels.
The authors note that GLS2 expression is lost or greatly decreased in
hepatocellular carcinomas. Its overexpression reduces cancer proliferation.
Meeran and Kativar report that dietary grape seed proanthocyanidins prevent
photocarcinogenesis in mice. The authors stress that grape seed proanthocyanidins possess chemotherapeutic potential against human epidermoid carcinoma cells in
vitro. They call for more studies to verify the chemotherapeutic effect of grape
seed proanthocyanidins in skin cancers.
Hanne Frederiksen report that polyphenols in red grape skin and seed extract had
positive effect on the development of atherosclerosis. In their study the
authors found that grape skin and seed extract had no significant effects in
females rabbits but was associated with transient less hypercholesterolemic
response to semisynthetic diet. The development of aortic atherosclerosis in
males was retarded.
Rosemary Carpenter and colleagues 2006 determined the concentration of compound
that inhibited cell growth by 50% (IC50) of a range of phytochemicals and plant
extracts and to investigate their antioxidant and genoprotective effects. The
authors found that resveratrol presented the highest IC50 value of 13.7
µg/mL, and Echinacea the lowest at 9,400 µg/mL. Oxidative stress was
strongly reduced by olive leaf extract and bearberry, grapeseed polyphenols and
bearberry strongly protected against H2O2- and DNA damage. The authors concluded
that non-nutrient dietary constituents may present important bioactive effects.
Extracts of bearberry, grapeseed polyphenols, and olive leaf extract, protect
against oxidative stress.
Williams and colleagues 2009 found that trans-resveratrol, a polyphenolic
compound found in grapes and other foods was found to be non-mutagenic in a
bacterial assays, but produced disruption or breakages of chromosomes. In bone
marrow test in rats, Resvida, a high pure resveratrol, however, was found to
be non-genotoxic, and did not cause adverse reproductive effects in rats.
Physiologic tests found resveratrol to be readily absorbed, metabolized and
excreted. The authors concluded that Resvida is well tolerated and non-toxic.
Resveratrol fraud, scandal of scientific publications [40]
The preparations for the international Resveratrol 2012 conference scheduled for later this year became difficult on account of the controversy over the research fraud allegations against Dr Dipak Das, a member of the scientific committee of the conference.
The investigations against Dr Dipak Das are going on since 2008. A report of the U.S. Office of Research Integrity unveiled a series of manipulations of pictures using image processing software. These pictures were the basis of his study supporting health benefits of resveratrol. The investigation involved a scientific paper of Dr.Das published by the University of Connecticut School of Medicine's Cardiovascular Research Center (CRC) in 2008. [41]
According to the University of Connecticut Das fabricated and falsified data in dozens of published papers on resveratrol, saying that the bioflavonoid of red wine improved cardiovascular health. The university dismisses Das and returned $890 000 of the federal research funding awarded to Dr. Das.
Resveratrol became headline after results of the first international resveratrol meeting in Denmark in 2010 were published PLoS One with Dr. Das as coauthor. The position paper of the meeting states that animal data are promising in prevention of various cancer types, coronary heart diseases and diabetes and there is a strong need for human clinical trials. Meanwhile, more than 4000 papers on resveratrol were published. [42]
All publications on resveratrol reported at the 2010 meeting were published in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. January 2011 [43] [44]
The "anti-ageing" drugs are being developed by a Glaxo subsidiary called
Sirtris Pharmaceutical in the US, and are thought to mimic the effects of the
red wine component resveratrol as well as activate a key anti-ageing protein
called SIRT1. However, a controversy arose over whether resveratrol directly
activates SIRT1 as well as the anti-ageing effects of certain dietary restrictions.
Minghan Wang and colleagues 2009 reports that findings related to SIRT1
activation might be an experimental artifact. Resveratrol activates SIRT1
only when a fluorescent molecule used to gauge its activity was present.
[45]
Dai and clloegues 2010, most of them former employees of Sirtris Phamaceuticals,
claim that drugs designed to combat age-related diseases work as advertised.
[46]
Christoph Westphal co-founded Sirtris Pharmaceuticals in 2004 with David
Sinclair and served as Chief Executive Officer until April 2010. Dr. Westphal
also founded the Longwood Founders Fund, and is currently the President of SR
One, the corporate venture capital arm of GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) that invests
globally in emerging life science companies.
Michelle Dipp, senior vice president of Glaxo's Center of Excellence for External
Drug Discovery. and Christoph Westphal started online sales of resveratrol
charging $540 for a one-year supply, alleging that revenues from sales are to
cover the costs of a 10 years project regarding life extending properties of resveratrol. The project planed to control 10.000 subjects. Half of them
receiving resveratrol as supplement, the other half a placebo.Selling
resveratrol as supplement no clinical trials are needed such as those demanded by
FDA for drugs to get permission to begin sales. Resveratrol supplements is being
sold online for years using the most sometimes strange and unfounded claims.
Scientists found that yeast, maggots, flies and mice lived longer and
healthier when some special proteins, the sirtuins, were induced. Less cases
of diabetes occurred and individuals were slimmer than the control group. The
sirtuine- proteins were found to curb specific genes engaged in ageing
processes, and resveratrol and a couple of other substances regulating
sirtuins were identified. The Sirtris company activated the promotion of
reservatrol.
The farmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) bought Sirtris for $ 729
million in June 2008. Westphal founded then the Healthy Lifespan Institute
initiating the resveratrol study.
According to Spiegel Online, Dr. Westphal started the selling of reservatrol
disregarding the traditional procedure of pharmacological studies which call
for laboratory testing the active agent in 10 to 15 years, followed by trials
on animals and finally on humans. This makes sure that only safe chemicals or
botanicals are sold to consumers, the activity must be proved and side
effects known. Healthy Lifespan Institute did not follow such scientific
rules to market the resveratrol product.
There are doubts on any effect of resveratrol on sirtuins. There are no evidences
that resveratrol extends the life span of humans, says Ulrich Mahlknecht. The Healthy Lifespan Institute stopped selling resveratrol in August 2010.
Sirtuins are classed according to their sequence of amino acids. They were
initially found in yeasts and named sir2. In mammals, seven genes were detected
and named SIRT1 to SIRT7 their expression of enzymes act as on cellular
regulation.
From Wikipedia based on North/Verdin diagram.
Sirtuin activity is inhibited by nicotinamide, which binds to a specific receptor
site, so it is thought that drugs that interfere with this binding should
increase sirtuin activity. Development of new agents that would specifically
block the nicotinamide-binding site could provide an avenue for development of
newer agents to treat degenerative diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's,
diabetes, atherosclerosis, and gout. SIRT1 deacetylates
and coactivates the retinoic acid receptor beta that upregulates the expression
of alpha-secretase (ADAM10). Alpha-secretase in turn suppresses beta-amyloid
production. Furthermore, ADAM10 activation by SIRT1 also induces the Notch
signaling pathway, which is known to repair neuronal damage in the brain. Sirtuins have been proposed as a chemotherpeutic target for
type II diabetes mellitus. Cell culture research into the behaviour of the human
sirtuin SIRT1 shows that it behaves like the yeast sirtuin Sir2: SIRT2 assists
in the repair of DNA and regulates genes that undergo altered expression with
age. Adding resveratrol to the diet of mice inhibit gene expression profiles
associated with muscle aging and age-related cardiac dysfunction.
Preliminary studies with resveratrol, a possible SIRT1 activator, have led some
scientists to speculate that resveratrol may extend lifespan. However, this
hypothesis has not yet been borne out in experiments with mammals.
Rafael de Cabo and colleagues 2008 report that in elderly mice Resveratrol
reduced signs of aging including reduced albuminuria, decreased inflammation and
apoptosis in the vascular endothelium, increased aortic elasticity, greater motor
coordination, reduced cataract formation, and preserved bone mineral density.
However, when supplementation started at mid-life the mice did not live longer
as control mice. The authors concluded that resveratrol caused beneficial effects
in mice but did not increase life span when started mid-life. Tang and Chua 2010 describe the activities of Sir2/Sirt1, related to longevity in
several animal models, regulating energy metabolism, such as peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), and its transcriptional
coactivator, PPARgammacoactivator-1alpha (PGC-1alpha). This may explain the
activity of Sirt1 within the metabolic changes of a caloric restriction (CR)
diet. Sirt1 is also associated with other metabolic regulators like
AMP-activated kinase (AMPK). The authors stress that interfering in the activity
of Sirt1 in animal, ageing-associated disorders, such as neurodegenerative
diseases could be improved.
Yu and Auwerx 2009 stress that all sirtuins are linked to cellular energy
levels. They require nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) for their
deacetylase or ADP-ribosyl transferase activity. Specifically SIRT1 modulates
many aspects of glucose and lipid homeostasis, SIRT2, SIRT3, and SIRT4 are also
implicated in other metabolic pathways.
Dransfeld and colleagues 2010 write that sirtuins are associated with stress
response, apoptosis and energy metabolism, degenerative diseases, the
pathogenesis of cancer, and regulation of cellular life span.
Specifically SIRT3 shows strong effects on stress response, apoptosis, cell
cycle and energy metabolism, mimicking effects of caloric restriction. SIRT3 was
found by the authors to increase cellular respiration by 80% when compared to
30% by SIRT1.
Zarze and colleagues 2010 report that resveratrol and SRT1720 have been shown to
act as sirtuin activators improving type 2 diabetes in mice. Studies using
nematodes found that resveratrol extends lifespan in nematode models by more
than 3%, but SRT1 720 did not have any effect on lifespan extension. The authors
suggest that relevant effects of resveratrol are not found in STR 720.
According to Huang and colleagues 2010 sirtuins are important proteins in
aging, stress resistance and metabolic regulation. The authors describe
biochemical properties of three sirtuins SIRT3, 4 and 5, which are located
within the mitochondrial matrix. Large fraction of mitochondrial proteins are
acetylated which is modulated by nutritional status. The authors concluded
that mitochondrial sirtuins, such as SIRT3, 4 and 5, are metabolic sensors
modulating the activity of enzymes via protein deacetylation or
mono-ADP-ribosylation.
In a review of 2010 Aljada Dong and Mousa write that sirtuins are
NAD+-dependent histone/protein deacetylases regulating various normal and
abnormal cellular and metabolic processes, including tumorigenesis,
neurodegeneration, and processes associated with type 2 diabetes and obesity,
Alzheimer's disease, and longevity. The authors describes the mechanisms
regulating sirtuin activity, and how to interfere in the mechanism of related
diseases. [56]
Vasantha and colleagues 2008 used blanched, dehydrated, and ground apple fuit
skin to improve the nutritional value of muffins. The apple skin powder used
by the authors contained 41% total dietary fibre and high content of antioxidants.
The authors stressed that apple fruit skin, a by-product of apple processing, is
a rich source of dietary fibre and phenolics such as quercetin glycosides,
catechins, chlorogenic acid, phloridzin, and cyanidin galactoside. Using apple
skin powder in bakery may turn apple skin from by-product to a valious nutritional enhancer.
Pectin
Pectin can:
- Bind and help the excretion of steroid compounds reducing thus blood level of LDL- cholesterol[58].
- It increases viscosity and reduces the availability of nutritional energy.
- It reduces the peak of glucose after meals.
- It binds water and increases volume of faecis.
- Pectin has anionic groups which can be used as a transport medium of special drugs which should act in colon. On the other side it should always taken under consideration if medication should be taken during meals or between meals as the in some cases important parts of the drug may be absorbed by pectin and other dietary fibre.
-Pectin can cause modification ofthe mucosa. Increase of the weight of ileum and colon of mice was found by Schmehl[59].
Low esterified pectin had great activity. Even with no limits established by food law the use of pectin should be kept in a reasonable level as the high viscosity may reduce resorption of important food components.
Dietary fibre and inflammation
[60]
C-reactive protein (CRP) is produced in the liver and is a known marker for inflammation. Increased levels of CRP are a good predictor for the onset of both type-2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Yunsheng Ma and colleagues suggest that a diet high in fibre may play a role in reducing inflammation and, thus, the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and that dietary fibre is protective against high CRP. 20 to 35 grams of fibre per day, including both soluble and insoluble fibre are being recommended.
It was suggested that dietary fibre could reduce the oxidation of fats and that soluble fibre act as prebiotics improving gut health diminishing inflammatory conditions.
Lupeol, a triterpene present in fruits and vegetables is being studied as dietary natural agent to slow tumour progression in prostate cancer.
Lupeol treatment resulted in significant inhibition of cell viability in a dose-dependent manner and caused apoptotic death of prostate cancer cells. Among all death receptor targets examined, Lupeol specifically caused a significant increase in the expression of Fas receptor.
The small interfering RNA-mediated silencing of the Fas gene and inhibition of caspase-6, caspase-8, and caspase-9 by their specific inhibitors confirmed that Lupeol specifically activates the Fas receptor-mediated apoptotic pathway in androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cells.
The treatment of cells with a combination of anti-Fas monoclonal antibody and Lupeol resulted in higher cell death compared with the additive effect of the two compounds alone, suggesting a synergistic effect. Because early clinical prostate cancer growth is an androgen-dependent response, the results of the present study suggest that Lupeol may have a potential to be an effective agent against prostate cancer.
Green tea polyphenols, a mixture of various polyphenols inhibit the growth and progression of prostate cancer in TRAMP mice. Epidemiologic reports support that green tea may reduce prostate cancer risk in humans. During the course of prostate cancer development and progression the effectiveness of green tea is not yet certain in humans. However, based on the study, it is suggested that green tea in general and polyphenols present therein may prove to be a useful supplement in the prevention or slower progress of prostate cancer in humans. [62] The IGF-I/IGFBP-3 signalling pathway is a prime pathway for green tea polyphenol mediated inhibition of prostate cancer that limits the progression of cancer through inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis.
Chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activity of C3G compound from blackberry [63]
Min Ding an colleagues say that epidemiological data suggest that consumption of fruits and vegetables has been associated with a lower incidence of cancer. Cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G), a compound found in blackberry and other food products, was shown to possess chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic activity in the present study.
They conclude that a purified compound of anthocyanin inhibits tumor promoter-induced carcinogenesis and tumor metastasis in vivo.
Willis, Shukitt-Hale and Joseph 2009 report that increased oxidative stress
and modifications in brain lipid composition cause damage and dysfunction of
the ageing brain. The authors stress that inclusion of antioxidant-rich foods
and essential fatty acids in the diet can slow the age-related progression of
cognitive and behavioural decline.
Moderate consume of walnuts protects brain from ageing [65]
James A. Joseph and colleagues 2009 found that adding a moderate, 7 to 9
walnuts/day to an otherwise healthy diet improves motor and behavioural skills
middle-aged individuals. Polyphenols, other antioxidants and essential fatty
acids are the content of walnut which cause the beneficial neurological
effects. However, higher doses of walnut impaired performance in the rodent
study. The authors concluded that walnuts, eaten in moderation protect the
neural tissue from ageing.
Blackberry improves cognitive function in aged rats
[66]
Joseph and colleagues 2009 write that polyphenols from fruits and vegetables
increasing antioxidant and/or anti-inflammatory levels, or by direct effects
on signalling, in the brain retard and even reverse age-related decrements in
motor and cognitive performance.
The authors report that increased dietary intake of 2% blackberry-supplemented
diet improved balance and co-ordination working, or short-term, memory
performance in aged rats.
Genistein [67]
Studies in vitro suggest that osteopontin (OPN), an extracellular matrix protein secreted by macrophages infiltrating prostate tumours, and by tumour cells, may have a role in the transition from clinically insignificant tumours to metastatic prostate cancer.
Studies are consistent with the possibility that dietary genistein may delay the progression from benign to malignant tumours by inhibiting OPN expression. Our earlier studies in Transgenic Mouse Prostate adenocarcinoma (TRAMP) mice showed that genistein, an isoflavone found in soybeans, lowered the incidence of advanced PC. This suggested that lower intake of dietary soy may be one possible cause for higher incidence of advanced prostate carcinome in Western men. [68]
Green tea is supposed to reduced risks of breast, lung, prostate and ovarian cancer. Black tea does not present cancer protective effect.
The meta-analysis of Can-Lan Sun and colleges from the Cancer Center of the University of Minnesota indicates a lower risk for breast cancer with green tea consumption. Available data suggest a possible late-stage, promotional effect of black tea on breast carcinogenesis. [69]
Administration of green tea to SKH-1 mice, via the drinking fluid, was found to significantly reduce the incidence and volume of ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation-induced skin tumors in a study by leading author Q Liu. [70]
Epigallocatechin Gallate is an anti-oxidant polyphenol flavonoid isolated from green tea. Its possible benefit as a nutritional chemopreventive agent for cancer, atherosclerosis, and neurodegenerative diseases is generating increased scientific interest.
The protection from breast cancer by tea is related specifically to the catechin content, specifically epillocatechin.
According to Joshua D. Lambert and Chung S. Yang a typical cup of brewed green tea contains, by dry weight, 30-40% catechins including epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin-3-gallate, and epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Through fermentation, a large percentage of the catechins are converted to oligomeric theaflavins and polymeric thearubigins in black tea. The resulting brewed black tea contains 3-10% catechins, 2-6% theaflavins and >20% thearubigins. [71]
The catechins have been demonstrated to undergo considerable biotransformation and to have low bioavailability. The theaflavins are even less bioavailable. This poor availability confounds attempts to correlate in vitro findings with cancer prevention in animal models. Cell line studies typically require concentrations of compound in the 5-100-micro mol/L range. Such concentrations
are typically not observed systemically. [71]
van der Burg-Koorevaar, Miret and Duchateau 2011 tested the effect of skimmd milk and full-fat milk on the polyphenols of English black tea and Indian black tea. The authors found that milk proteins formed polyphenol–protein complexes resulting in decrease of total catechin (TCAT) recovery, however the bioaccessibility of polyphenols remainde unchanged compared with tea without milk. The authors concluded that digestion degrades the polyphenol–protein complexes and the healthy effects of tea remain unchanged with or without added milk.
Shizuka Sasazuki and colleagues 2008 investigated the effect of the tea
polyphenols on the risk of gastric cancer in a nested case-control study.
The authors found an increased risk of gastric cancer for men, when a high
plasma level of (-)-epigallocatechin was measure. For women, a high plasma
level of (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) of 9.3 ng/mL and up, decreased risk
of gastric cancer by 73 per cent compared with ECG not detectable cases.
The effect of ECG plasma levels below 9.3 ng/ml was not significant. The
authors suggest that cigarette smoking to play a role as an effect modifier observed between men and women.
Swen Wolfram and colleagues in a study found that dietary supplementation of epigallocatechin gallate (high purity green tea leaf extract] resulted in improved oral glucose tolerance, blood glucoses levels, lower free fatty acid plasma concentrations, as well as increasing plasma insulin concentrations in mice and rats. The researchers wrote that EGCG downregulated genes involved in gluconeogenesis, as well as genes involved in the synthesis of fatty acids, triacylgycerol, and cholesterol.
The authors conclude that EGCG beneficially modifies glucose and lipid metabolism in H4IIE cells and markedly enhances glucose tolerance in diabetic rodents. Dietary supplementation with EGCG could potentially contribute to nutritional strategies for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus if the findings can be translated to humans.
Lefebvre and colleagues 2010 stress that obese patients have chronic,
low-grade inflammation that predisposes to type 2 diabetes and results, in
part, from dysregulated visceral white adipose tissue (WAT) functions.
The authors describe the PARgama signaling pathway operates differently in
the visceral WAT of lean and obese. PPARgama in visceral, but not subcutaneous
WAT from obese mice displayed increased sensitivity to activation by its
agonist, an anti-diabetic drug rosiglitazone which acts as an insulin
sensitizer, by binding to the PPAR receptors in fat cells and making the cells
more responsive to insulin.
The authors explain the selective proteasomal degradation of RXRalfa initiated
by UCH-L1 upregulation which modulates the relative affinity of PPARgama
heterodimers for SMRT and their responsiveness to PPARgama agonists,
activating the PPARgama-controlled gene network in visceral WAT of obese
animals and humans.
Muhammad A. Abdul-Ghani and colleagues 2008 assessed the efficacy of 1-h
plasma glucose concentration and the metabolic syndrome in predicting future
risk of type 2 diabetes. The authors suggest the use of the plasma glucose
concentration at 1 hour during the oral glucose tolerance test to predict the risk of type 2 diabetes. A plasma
glucose higher than 155 mg/dl, and the Adult Treatment Panel ATP III
criteria for the metabolic syndrome was
found useful to classify nondiabetic patients into three risk groups: low,
intermediate, and high risk.
Wentworth and colleagues 2010 found that the presence of macrophage cells in
fat tissue are closely related to insulin resistance in human obesity.
Macrophage cells are special white blood cells which are produced by the bone
marrow as a response to an infection.
In obese people, macrophages move into the fat tissue where they cause
inflammation and release cytokines, Certain cytokines cause cells to become
resistant to the effects of the hormone insulin, leading to diabetes and heart
disease. The authors write that complications of obesity such as insulin
resistance and diabetes, cardiovascular disease associated with hardening of
the arteries, and liver problems are the result of the inflammation.
Developing drugs which control the macrohage release of cytokines may reduce
the risk of these diseases, say the authors.
The authors also report that weight reduction caused the macrophages in the fat
tissue to disappear reducing the risk of developing insulin resistance and
diabetes. Raquel Villegas and colleagues 2008 examined associations between fruits and
vegetables intake and the incidence of type 2 diabetes. They found that
vegetables in general and as individual groups were inversely associated with
type 2 diabetes. Fruit intake did not reduce the risk of diabetes.
In this study consumption of about 430 grams vegetables per day, was
associated with a 28per cent lower risk of diabetes compared with low
consumption of about 129 grams per day.
The authors suggest that the hight content in fibre, antioxidants, magnesium
and a low glycemic index in vegetables were responsible for the decreased risk
of type 2 diabetes, but could not entirely explain it, other compounds such as
phytates, lignans, isoflavones, vitamin E and C, but not beta-carotene might
have an additive or synergetic effect.
The authors concluded that vegetables, but not fruit consumption may protect
against the development of type 2 diabetes.
The active compounds, include flavone, phenolic acid, lactone, polyose, amino acid, and microelements of bamboo extract and are, according to Carol Cheow from Cactus Botanics, linked to protection of blood vessels, the liver, improving sleep quality, protection against cancer, and anti-age, having positive impacts on the health and longevity of human beings.
Chung and colleagues evaluated the effects of
xylooligosaccharides on the intestinal
microbiota, gastrointestinal function, and nutritional parameters of elderly people. In the study 4 grams of xylooligosaccharides for three weeks
significantly increased the population of bifidobacteria, increased the faecal
moisture content, and decreased the faecal pH value due to increased
production of short chain fatty acids such as butyrate and proprionate.
In this study the supplementation of xylooligosaccharides was found more
effective than prebiotics like inulin and fructooligosaccharides in promoting
the intestinal health.
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) = 3.0 g
Xylooligosaccharides = 0.7 g
Interfering in the function of the brain to improve learning and memory has a
long histrory of trials an errors. None of chemicals used proved to be without
side effect.
Greely and colleagues 2008 point to the fact that on university campuses
around the world, prescription drugs such as Adderall and Ritalin are dealt
between the students to get higher grades. The authors stress that such
transactions are not legal and are punished in U.S.A. by prison.
Thaler 2009 comments the article of Greely et al 2008 Nature 456: 702-705. The
author analyses the possibility of humane societal appreciation of mind-altering
drugs, such as cognitive enhancing drugs. The author hypotheses the use of
ever-smaller amounts of psychoactive drugs reducing the harm and profiting from
benign effects. The authors ignites again the discussion of cognitive enhancing
drugs for healthy individuals, and turns the attention to gene-environment
interaction regarding the cognitive ability. [82]
Nootropics, also referred to as smart drugs, memory enhancers, and cognitive
enhancers, are drugs, supplements, nutraceuticals, and functional foods that
are purported to improve mental functions such as cognition, memory,
intelligence, motivation, attention, and concentration. Nootropics are thought
to work by altering the availability of the brain's supply of neurochemicals
(neurotransmitters, enzymes, and hormones), by improving the brain's oxygen
supply, or by stimulating nerve growth. However the efficacy of nootropic
substances, in most cases, has not been conclusively determined.
A nootropic is a cognitive enhancer that is neuroprotective or extremely nontoxic.
A cognitive enhancer is a substance that enhances concentration and memory,
such as the amphetamines. These drug may have serious side-effects.
The nutrients in food can influence our memory, learning, concentration, and
decision-making, therefore the lack of them has a negative effect on the brain. So far, the studies have been able to link brain function to vitamin B1 and B12,
omega-3, caffeine, antioxidants, protein, and iron. A varied diet with plenty of
fruits and vegetables is thus the best way to enhance learning and memory. Goldman 2001 points to the fact that many herbal products are of
uncertain composition which may be unsafe. Herbal medicines are regulated as
dietary supplements, which do not need a premarketing regulatory clearance
required for drugs. The burden of proof is on the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration to show a dietary supplement is unsafe, unlike for drugs.
[84]
Shukitt-Hale, Cheng and Joseph 2009 found that dietary intake of a 2%
blackberry-supplemented diet reversed age-related deficits in behavioural and
neuronal function in rats. This study suports previous investigations of the
authors demonstrating improved motor and cognitive performance in aged rats after
supplementation with other berry fruits. The authors write that the positive
effects of the polyphenols may result from an antioxidant and/or
anti-inflammatory activity, or by directly interfering on signal transmission in
the brain.
According to Kuriyama from the Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan, considerable experimental and animal evidence shows that green tea may possess potent activities of neuroprotection, neurorescue, and amyloid precursor protein processing that may lead to cognitive enhancement, no human data are available. That is why Kuriyama analysed the consumption of green tea, black tea, oolong tea and coffee)
Green tea is a rich source of catechins, compounds suggested to play a beneficial role in weight loss, cardiovascular and oral health, such as epigallocatechin gallate which is said to be brain permeable . Its protection of the brain is proposed to be due to mechanisms other than its antioxidant and iron-chelating properties. Modulation of cell survival and cell cycle genes and promotion of neurite overgrowth activity are cited as possible mechanism.
This may be the reason why Kuriyama found that drinking more than two cups of green tea a day could cut the risk of dementia by half in elderly Japanese subjects. Kuriyama concluded that a higher consumption of green tea is associated with a lower prevalence of cognitive impairment in humans.
Kuriyama found only a weak or null relation between consumption of black or oolong tea or coffee and cognitive impairment.
The authors, however point out the limitations of the study noting that healthier and more active individuals might have more opportunities to consume green tea which might promote higher cognitive function.
Obstructive sleep apnea is a breathing problems during sleep where soft tissue
in the rear of the throat collapses and closes during sleep increasing risk of
oxidative stress and changes in the brain tissue in areas involved in learning
and memory. This sleep-disordered breathing is characterised by intermittent
hypoxia which impairs spatial learning and increases NADPH oxidase activity
and oxidative stress in rodents. [88]
Isabel C. Burckhardt and colleagues 2008 studied the effect of oral
supplements of green tea-derived polyphenols to reduce the neural
susceptibility to intermittent hypoxia during sleep in rodents.
The authors write that green tea catechin polyphenols (GTPs) may attenuate
intermittent hypoxia-induced neurobehavioral deficits by reducing intermittent
hypoxia-induced NADPH oxidase expression, lipid peroxidation, and inflammation.
Following the results of their study the authors conclude that oral GTP
attenuates intermittent hypoxia-induced spatial learning deficits and
mitigates intermittent hypoxia-induced oxidative stress through multiple
beneficial effects on oxidant pathways.
The authors suggest further studies on the therapeutic role of green tea catechin
polyphenols in sleep-disordered breathing to reduce oxidative processes
underlying neurocognitive deficits associated with these sleep disorders. Michael S. Urschitz and
colleagues found in 2003 that habitual snoring (i.e., snoring frequently or
always) was associated with poor academic performance in these primary school
children. This was only partially related to intermittent hypoxia. Urschitz
concluded that primary snoring and/or upper airway resistance syndrome rather
than obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome were the cause cognitive impairments.
The authors stress that habitual snoring (i.e., snoring frequently or always)
without intermittent hypoxia, up to now largely considered benign, may impair
neurocognitive functioning in children and, thereby, their performance at school.
The findings of Urschitz and colleagues extend the possible potential benefits of
green tea polyphenols also to habitual snoring. The cholinergic
hypothesis, proposes that the disease is caused by reduced synthesis of the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine. However, treating acetylcholine deficiency is
not effective. Other cholinergic effects have also been proposed, for example,
initiation of large-scale aggregation of amyloid leading to generalised
neuroinflammation.
The amyloid hypothesis says that amyloid beta deposits are the fundamental
cause of the disease. The gene for the amyloid beta precursor (APP) is
located on chromosome 21, and people with trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) who thus
have an extra gene copy almost universally exhibit AD by 40 years of age. Also
APOE4, the major genetic risk factor for AD, leads to excess amyloid buildup
in the brain before AD symptoms arise.
The tau hypothesis says that the hyperphosphorylated tau protein begins to pair
with other threads of tau. Eventually, they form neurofibrillary tangles inside
nerve cell bodies. When this occurs, the microtubules disintegrate, collapsing
the neuron's transport system ending in the death of the nerve cells.
However, epidemiological studies have proposed relationships between certain
modifiable factors, such as diet, cardiovascular risk, pharmaceutical
products, or intellectual activities among others, and a population's
likelihood of developing AD. Only further research, including clinical trials,
will reveal whether, in fact, these factors can help to prevent AD.
The components of a Mediterranean diet, which include fruit and vegetables,
bread, wheat and other cereals, olive oil, fish, and red wine, may all
individually or together reduce the risk and course of Alzheimer's disease.
Several vitamins such as B12, B3, C or folic acid have been found in some
studies to be related to a reduced risk of AD but other studies indicate that
they do not have any significant effect on the onset or course of the disease
and may have important secondary effects. Curcumin from the curry spice
turmeric has shown some effectiveness in preventing brain damage in mouse models.
There is still no conclusive therapy for the disease. Much research is being done
on this disease.
Rene O Sanchez-Mejial and colleagues 2008 suggest that raised levels of the
omega-6 fatty acid arachidonic acid may be linked to Alzheimer's disease,
according to the study in a mouse model.
Fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid are part of the phospholipids that form
the protecting membranous barrier from the nerve cells.
The researchers found an increase in arachidonic acid and related metabolites
in the brain of Alzmeimer mice. Arachidonic acid is released in the brain from
phospholipids by enzymes of the phospholipase A2 (GIVA-PLA2) which were found
to be elevated in the memory centre located in the hippocampus of diseased
mice.
Reduction, or removal of the PLA2 enzyme in Alzheimer's mice by genetic
engineering prevented memory deficiency and other behavioural abnormalities in
these mice. The authors believe that arachidonic acid cause is likely to
cause excitation and neurons dysfunction. Normal function of the neurons may
be restored by lowering the levels of arachidonic acid.
The study suggests that reducing dietary omega-6 fatty acids from intake of
poultry, cereals, eggs, nuts, vegetable oils and evening primrose oil, and
developing medication to reduce the PLA 2 enzime activity may benefit treatment
and prevention of Alzheimer's disease.
Gu and colleagues 2010 found a dietary pattern which is strongly protective
against the development of Alzheimer disease. This diet is high in omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids, omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E
and folate but low in saturated fatty acids and vitamin B12, so as found in
salad dressing, nuts, fish, tomatoes, poultry, fruit and green leafy
vegetables, and low of high fat dairy, red meat and butter. Folate and vitamin
B12 are known to reduce blood levels of homocysteine which is associated
with dementia.
The dietary pattern provides low ingestion of saturated fatty acids and higher
ingestion of polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, and folate, this reduces
the risk of Alzheimer disease. The authors stress the importance of the
combination of the components of the diet. Focusing on an isolated increase or
reduction of just one component is not sufficient to build the protective effect.
Dr Hans-Ulrich Demuth of the company Probiodrug. Steffen Roßner from the
University of Leipzig and colleagues 2008 studied the enzyme glutaminyl
cyclase which is responsible for the production of the protein that cause
blockages in the brain of Alzheimer's patients. The researchers want to shut
off production of the glutaminyl cyclase enzyme to stop the production of
these proteins. The authors added an enzyme inhibitor to the food of diseased
mice which started to produce up to 80 per cent less build-up of
Alzheimer-causing proteins in their brains.
A new class of drugs, gamma-secretase modulators (GSM) is told to reduce
harmful long proteins and promote levels of shorter protein elements protecting against
the disease.
Beta-amyloid deleterious role in the Alzheimer's disease: Bastianetto and
colleagues found that green and black tea extracts and flavan-3-ols were
neuroprotective active against toxicity induced by beta-amyloid-derived peptides. Strong active flavan-3-ol were found to be gallic acid, epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) being the strongest of them. Bastianetto and colleagues found
epicatechin and epigallocatechin ineffective in the same range of concentrations.
According to this study the catechin gallates (through the galloyl moiety) contribute to the neuroprotective effects of both green and black teas, reducing age-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer disease. The content of catechins of green tea is about 70 mg per 100 mL. Black tea contains only about 15 mg per 100 mL. Green tea should therefore be given preference. [96]
Luchsinger and colleagues studied the role of higher intake of folate, vitamins B6 (pyridoxine hydrochloride) and B12 (cyanocobalamin) in decreasing the risk of Alzheimer disease (AD) through the lowering of homocysteine levels.
The authors concluded that higher folate intake from both dietary and supplements decrease the risk of Alzheimers's disease about 50%, and that the effect of folate was independent of other risk factors and levels of s B6 and B12.
The authors point out that dietary folate nor supplements alone were significantly linked to Alzheimer's disease risk; only the two in combination appeared to produce an effect, and that vitamin B12 and B6 levels were not associated with Alzheimer's disease risk.
Lower homocysteine levels were found in the group of higher folate intake. Homocystein is involved in the accumulation of amyloid proteins in the brains causing Alzheimer disease.
The authors call for clinical studies before the decision to increase folate intake to prevent Alzheimer's disease can be made. The results of the ongoing "B-Vitamin Treatment Trialist's Collaboration" addressing the link between B-vitamins, homocysteine levels, and cognitive function should be waited for.
Wiliam B. Grant hypothesises that vitamin D can reduce the risk of developing
dementia based on observational evidences that vitamin D deficiency,
associated with increased risk for cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus,
depression, dental caries, osteoporosis, and periodontal disease, may also be
a risk factor for dementia. The laboratory evidence included findings of
neuroprotection and inflammation reduction related to vitamin D.
The author calls for observational studies of incidence of dementia with respect
to prediagnostic serum 25(OH)D or vitamin D supplementation.
Ana Lloret and colleagues 2009 studying vitamin E prevention of oxidative
stress and loss of cognition in Alzheimer's Disease found that some
individuals responded to a supplementation of 800 IU of vitamin E per day for
six month. The blood oxidized glutathione (GSSG) levels were lower after the
treatment and scores on the cognitive tests were maintained. No prevention of
oxidative stress, however, was found at other individuals which presented a
detrimental effect of cognitive functions.
The authors recommend, therefore, that supplementation of Alzheimer's Disease
patients with vitamin E should be monitored by determining the oxidative stress
indicator GSSG in each patient.
Devore and colleagues 2010 studied the intake of vitamin E, vitamin C, beta
carotene, and flavonoids relative to long-term risk of dementia and Alzheimer
disease. The authors, using data of the Rotterdam Study
[100], found that persons with highest intake of
vitamin E (18.5 mg per day, just over the recommended daily intake of 15 mg.)
were 25% less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer disease. Dietary
intake levels of vitamin C, beta carotene, and flavonoids were not associated
with dementia risk or Alzheimer disease. The authors concluded that high
intake of foods rich in vitamin E may reduce the risk of dementia and
Alzheimer disease.
This underlines the importance of a nutrition rich in fruit, vegetables and
vitamin E of wheat germ, nuts such as almonds and hazelnuts, vegetable oils
such as sunflower and safflower oils, and some green vegetables, such as
spinach and broccoli. High doses of vitamin E from supplements increase risk
of bleeding, adults should consume no more than 1,000 mg of vitamin E per day.
Foods, however, cannot provide such high levels of vitamin E. [101]
According to Greg M.Cole and colleagues found in a study that omega-3
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) could increase the production of LR11, a protein
key to the clearance of enzymes in the brain that make the beta amyloid
plaques that cause Alzheimer's disease.
Inflammation in Alzheimer's disease is characterized by increased cytokines
and activated microglia. Long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
are used the reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease. The authors found
curcumin promising to reduce excessive use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs which can cause gastrointestinal, liver, and renal toxicity.
Curcumin significantly lowered oxidized proteins and interleukin-1 Beta, a
proinflammatory cytokine elevated in the brains of these mice. The authors
concluded that curcumin spice may be promising for the prevention of
Alzheimer's disease.
Mice with age-related deficits in learning and memory were fed with oligomeric
proanthocyanidins (oligomers) (OPCs) on memory impairment. During the study
Yokosawa and colleagues found that administration of oligomers improved
spatial and object recognition impairment in mice due to an increase in the
densities of axons, dendrites and synapses.
Oligomers led to a neuroprotective role in the brains of the animals caused by an
increase in the phosphorylation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor
(VEGFR)-2, more accentuated in the hypothalamus and choroid plexus than in other
brain regions. Aging may lead to an increased risk of dementia and Alzheimer's
disease. These compounds may become interesting for the food industry.
According to Greg M. Cole and colleagues in 2005 increased intake of the
omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is
associated with reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease. DHA levels are
lower in serum and brains of Alzheimer's disease patients, which could result
from low dietary intake and/or PUFA oxidation.
In a mouse study the authors found that DHA-enriched diets significantly
reduced total beta-amiloid by >70% when compared with low-DHA or control
chow diets. They concluded that dietary could be protective against beta
-amyloid production, accumulation, and potential downstream toxicity. LR11
increase beta-amyloid production and may be a significant genetic cause of
late-onset Alzheimer's disease. The authors concluded that DHA increases SOR/LR11 levels and may play an important role in preventing late-onset
Alzheimer's disease.
Antioxidants of green tea may reduce oxidative stress induced by a build up of beta-amyloid
protein deposits and brain cell damage and death induced by Alzheimer's disease.
Haque and colleagues 2008 report that green tea extracts in the form of Mitsui
Norin's commercial Polyphenon E composed of 63% of
epigallocatechin-3-gallate, 11% of epicatechin, 6% of (-)-epigallocatechin
and 6% of (-)-epicatechin-gallate prevents cognitive impairment in rats.
A solution of 0.5 per cent of the green tea extract was fed to rats. Haque
says that humans with a body weight of 50 kg must drink 3 litres/day of such
solution to have a similar dose of antioxidants used in the study. However,
one litre could be sufficient if other antioxidant rich foods such as high
in vitamins A, B, C and E as well as polyphenols were in the every day's
diet.
The authors concluded that long-term administration of this commercial green
tea extract prevents cognitive deficits caused by oxidative stress,
beta-amyloid-induced in rats. The authors stress that it is not known if same
positive effects may result in humans.
The food industry eager to present new functional qualities which may be
hailed in marketing strategies, is increasingly focused on green tea as ice
tea, energy bars, dairy products and backery products. Microencapsulation is
being used to hide the bitter note of commercial green tea extracts.
In his study Hague and colleagues point to the fact that a high amount of 15 to
25 gram/day for a normal person of such commercial extracts are needed to
produce the Alzheimer protective effects.
Adding traces of such extracts to all kind of foods, drinks and
confectioneries will decisively improve the performance of the product on
market but its health benefits may be challenged.
The consumer should be aware that these functional products cannot replace
drinking green tea , having a diet rich in vegetables and fruits, reducing intake
of lean calories and fat.
Restricted oxygen supply (hypoxia) such as found in altitude sickness when oxygen supply to tissue or the whole body is restricted apoptosis takes place meaning that cells die. According to Hae Jeong Park, it is an important factor in wound healing, cardiovascular-related disease and certain cancers. EGCG was found to have a beneficial effect against hypoxia-induced apoptosis for human haematoma cells.
According to Park EGCG probably prevents the expression of a certain enzyme called caspase 3, which plays a important role in programmed cell death.
The origin, risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment for each type of cancer are unique. Since each form of cancer is a unique disease based on organ site, risk factors, treatment options, and mortality risk, each form of cancer must be individually evaluated in a health claim petition.
As a result, the agency considered whether the studies supported the potential substance - disease relationship for any type of cancer.
Two studies do not show that drinking green tea reduces the risk of breast cancer in women, but one weaker, more limited study suggests that drinking green tea may reduce this risk. According to FDA it is, therefore, highly unlikely that green tea reduces the risk of breast cancer and concludes that existing evidence does not support qualified health claims for green tea consumption and a reduced risk of any other type of cancer.
Polyphenols are compounds present in teas and fruits. They are effective to
scavenge free radicals and reduce the risk of a variety of diseases. Frejnagel
and Wroblewska assessed the effects of high doses of polyphenol extracts (0,4%)
from green tea chokeberry and honeysuckle
fruits on nutrient absorption in male Wistar rats.
Absorption from the small intestine of nutrients like zinc (Zn) and copper
(Cu) was heavily and digestibility slightly decreased. However no harmful
outcomes resulted from the consumption of polyphenol-rich extracts,concluded
the authors.
Cannabinoids are the active components of Cannabis sativa Linnaeus (marijuana) and their derivatives. Cannabinoids received renewed interest in pharmacology in recent years due to their diverse activities such as cell growth inhibition, anti-inflammatory effects and tumour regression.
Results of studies suggest that WIN-55,212-2 or other non-habit-forming cannabinoid receptor antagonists could be developed as novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of prostate cancer.
Andrew Steptoe and colleagues in a study concerning black tea, found that 6 weeks of tea consumption leads to lower post-stress cortisol and greater subjective relaxation, together with reduced platelet activation. Black tea may have health benefits in part by aiding stress recovery. Speeding the recovery following acute stress may reduce risk of chronic illnesses such as coronary heart disease.
50 minutes after a stress situation, lower cortisol levels, a lower blood platelet activation, and a greater degree of relaxation in the recovery period were found in a tea drinking group, compared with a not drinking tea group.
Because of the complex composition of tea comprising catechins, polyphenols, flavonoids and amino acids, no compound, either independently or acting in synergistic could be identified to be responsible for these positive effects,
Green tea contains between 30 and 40 per cent of water-extractable polyphenols, while black tea contains between 3 and 10 per cent. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epicatechin are being found in fresh tea leaves and are subject of numerous researches.
Salah-uddin Ahmed and colleagues in a study evaluated the efficacy of
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a polyphenol extracted from green tea on in
multiple myeloma (MM). The authors found that the tea extract may suppress
the inflammatory products in the connective tissue of people with rheumatoid
arthritis due to its ability to modulate growth factor-mediated cell proliferation.
EGCG induced both dose- and time-dependent growth arrest and subsequent apoptotic cell death in MM cell lines also led to significant apoptosis in human myeloma cells grown as tumors in SCID mice.
EGCG activates distinct pathways of growth arrest and apoptosis in MM cells by inducing the expression of death-associated protein kinase 2 rising hope for therapies using the specific antimyeloma activity of EGCG.
Synovial fibroblasts - cells that form a lining of the tissue surrounding the capsule of the joints - from patients with rheumatoid arthritis , under the influence of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1beta), produced molecules of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) which is linked to joint destruction during rheumatoid arthritis. With EGCG the production of IL-6 and COX-2 was not observed.
Dworak and colleagues 2010, experimenting with rats, reported that ATP
levels increase in the initial hours of spontaneous sleep in wake-active but
not in sleep-active brain regions. The surge is dependent on sleep when
neuronal activity is reduced, but is not related to time of day.
Phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (P-AMPK), which has a cellular
energy sensing and regulation, reacts inversely to ATP.
The authors concluded that ATP level in brain and P-AMPK levels give insights to
the biochemistry of sleep. Elmenhorst and colleagues 2009 report that adenosine acts via the A(1) adenosine
receptor (A(1)AR). It is a key factor in the control of sleep. The authors
suggest that cerebral A(1)ARs are involved in effects of sleep deprivation and
the regulation of sleep maintaining the responsiveness to increased adenosine
levels, and the effect of sleep deprivation and is in line with a sleep-induced
homoeostatic reorganization at the synaptic level.
Longordo and colleagues 2009 describe alterations in neurotransmitter receptor
function in diverse neuronal cell types caused by sleep deprivation, focusing
on sleep deprivation procedures that control for side-effects such as stress.
The authors call for more studies on the effect of sleep deprivation on
neurotransmitter receptor to increase knowledge of the detrimental effects of
sleep loss.
van Mark and colleagues 2010 write that short-term sleep deprivation lead to
overstimulation of proinflammatory immune mechanisms and moderates metabolic
changes, such as lymphocyte count or level of IL-6 or TNF-alpha serum
concentration. This increase cardiovascular disease risk. The authors report,
however, that chronic sleep did not always lead to an activation of these
indicators of immune system activation, between shift workers and day workers.
The authors concluded that the effect of chronic sleep restriction may be
compensated by a long-term immune regulation which protects against an
overstimulation of proinflammatory immune mechanisms and moderates metabolic
changes.
Masahiro Kisaki and colleaugue (2005) found that epigallocatechin-3-gallate from green tea has potential as a novel therapeutic agent for patients with B-cell malignancies including multiple myeloma via induction of apoptosis mediated by modification of the redox system, and enhances. As2O3-induced apoptosis in human multiple myeloma cells.
Tea and its constituents have shown anticarcinogenic activities in in vitro and animal studies. Epidemiologic studies, however, have been inconsistent.
Green tea contains between 30 and 40 per cent of water-extractable polyphenols, such as epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epicatechin, while black tea contains between 3 and 10 per cent.
Gong Yang assessed green tea consumption and colorectal cancer risk and rectal cancers. The researchers found an inverse dose-response relationship between the amount of tea consumed and duration in years of lifetime tea consumption This study suggests that regular consumption of green tea may reduce colorectal cancer risk in women.
Studies published in 2006 suggest that Mediterranean diet, rich in fruit, vegetables and olive and sparing in red meat and dairy products has been associated with a lower risk for several diseases and risk factors, including cancer, obesity, high cholesterol, high blood pressure and problems with processing glucose that may lead to diabetes, coronary heart disease, reduction of the risk of Alzheimer disease. According to the studies, the diet should contain turmeric and omega-3 fatty acids.
Celiac disease, coeliac disease or sprue,
is a condition in which genetically
predisposed people have an autoimmune reaction to gluten proteins found in all
wheat types and closely related cereals such as barley and rye. These
autoantibodies destroy of the villi in the small intestine, which results in
malabsorption of nutrients.
This autoimune reaction is caused by a response to gliadin, a gluten protein
found in wheat (and similar proteins of the tribe Triticeae which includes
other cultivars such as barley and rye).
Upon exposure to gliadin, the enzyme tissue transglutaminase modifies the
protein, and the immune system cross-reacts with the bowel tissue, causing an
inflammatory reaction that leads to flattening of the lining of the small
intestine, which interferes with the absorption of nutrients. The only
effective treatment is a lifelong gluten-free diet.
Oats may enhance levels of vitamin B1, magnesium, zink and antioxidants of gluten-free diets, according to Kemppainen and colleagues 2010. In this study
100g of kilned and unkilned oats a day were included in the diet of adult
celiac patients.
Kilning is a heat and moisture treatment to balance moisture, but mainly to
stabilize the groat. Oat groats are high in fat (lipids) and once exposed from
their protective hull, enzymatic (lipase) activity begins to break down the
fat into free fatty acids, ultimately causing an off flavor or rancidity. Oats
will begin to show signs of enzymatic rancidity within 4 days of being
dehulled and not stabilized.
The researchers report that kilned oats increased intake of vitamin B1 and
magnesium, while the unkilned oats increased intakes of magnesium and zinc.
Oats ay be acceptable for patients with celiac disease and can improve the
nutritional quality of the diet. However, concerns of potential contamination of
commercial oats with gluten containing cereals.
Lovik and colleagues 2010 write that gluten-free oats help to meet the fibre
recommendations of glute-freediets. It also increased billirubin levels, which
act as antioxidants.
Low serum bilirubin levels are linked to endothelial dysfunction and increased
atherosclerosis. This could significantly improve heart health of coeliac
diseased.
Jeffrey Meyerhardt and colleagues from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute,
studied the association of dietary pattern and risk of cancer recurrence in
stage III colon cancer patients. They found that a diet characterized by
higher intakes of red and processed meats, sweets and desserts, French fries,
and refined grains increases the risk of cancer recurrence and decreases
survival.
The authors say that eighty per cent of colorectal cancers may be
preventable by dietary changes.
The researchers compared dietary pattern characterized by high intakes of
fruits and vegetables, poultry, and fish with the Western pattern,
characterized by high intakes of meat, fat, refined grains, and dessert.
The researchers found that a diet with a higher correspondence to the Western
dietary pattern after cancer diagnosis were at a significant increase in the risk
of cancer recurrence or death. The top 20 per cent of people with the greatest
Western-style diet were 3.3 times more likely to have cancer recurrence or death
that those with least Western-style diet.
A study by E. Kesse and colleagues concerning the data of the European
Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (1993-2000), linked people
with a "Western" diet pattern to a significantly increased risk of the cancer.
The study made a comparison between four dietary patterns:
"Healthy": (Vegetables, fruit, yogurt, sea products, and olive oil). This diet
was found to have the lowest recurrence risk of all other diets.
"Western":
(Potatoes, pizzas and pies, sandwiches, sweets, cakes, cheese, cereal
products, processed meat, eggs, and butter). An increased risk of adenoma with
high scores of a higher risk of colorectal tumors was observed.
"Drinkers": (Sandwiches, snacks, processed meat, and alcoholic beverages).
High risc of found.
"Meat eaters": (Meat, poultry, and margarine). It was
positively associated with colorectal cancer risk.
Robert Lustig from the University of California blames the "toxic environment"
of Western diets to cause hormonal imbalances that encourage overeating by
its increased energy density, high-fat content, high glycemic index, increased
fructose composition, decreased fiber, and decreased dairy content.
Lustig blames in particular, too much fructose and not enough fiber as the
cornerstones of the obesity and diabetes epidemic. A study of Erdelyi and colleagues 2009 says that increased intake of red meat, processed meat and alcohol can increase risk of colorectal cancer, whereas greater consumption of dietary fiber, milk and calcium might decrease risk. According to this study Western diet induces oxidative stress and alters immune responses in the colon of mice long before tumors occur.
The researchers found 41 genes, related to metabolic processes such as lipid
metabolism and glutathione metabolism, to be expressed differently between the
Western diet and control animals. Genes collectively associated with immune
and inflammatory responses were found to be increased. The authors also
reported an increase of the number of macrophages, which are associated with
inflammation in the colon. Several proteins such as myeloperoxidase and MCP-1
and oxidative stress genes associated with inflammation were also found to be
increased.
The authors concluded that Western-style diet interferes with networks of
related biological response pathways involving colonic lipid metabolism,
oxidative stress, and the immune response.
No difference in the acute effects on vascular reactivity between
conventional fast-food and "healthy fast-food"
[126]
Tanja K Rudolph and colleagues 2007, in a study from the University Hospital
Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany looked for the acute effects of conventional and
alternative fast-food meals on vascular function investigating the
flow-mediated endothelium-dependent dilatation (FMD) and cardiovascular disease
risk markers before and after a conventional beef burger meal and healthier choices.
The researchers found that a conventional beef burger meal with French fries,
ketchup and soda, did not differ significantly in their acute effects on
vascular reactivity. compared with a vegetarian burger with French fries,
ketchup and soda and the vegetarian burger with salad, fruit, yogurt, and
orange juice The authors attribute the postprandial decline in FMD in part
to a postprandial increase in baseline arterial diameter.
Fast-food remains unhealthy. Addingvegetables and orange juice does not
present the variety of Mediterranean diet, according to the findings of the
Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study:
According to Seymor and colleagues 2008 eating grapes reduce salt-sensitive
hypertension in elderly people. In this strudy a high salt diet with grape
powder lowered blood pressure and improved cardiac function, compared with a
high salt diet without grape powder supplement.The grape powder diet reduced
systemic inflammation; reduced cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, and oxidative
damage; and increased cardiac glutathione.
The authors concluded that intake of phytochemical such as table grape powder
reduce salt-sensitive hypertension and diastolic dysfunction. Prehypertension is defined as systolic blood pressure
(BP) 120 to 139 mm Hg or diastolic BP 80 to 89 mm Hg. Recently, attention is
driven to the fact that prehypertension, blood pressure levels lower than
those usually considered abnormal might still be harmful. The effect of
prehypertension on risk for heart attacks and strokes is not entirely clear.
However, studies found that hypertension increases coronary artery calcium
which is associated with heart attacks and strokes. Coronary calcium can be
detected by computed tomography scan.
In a study, using data of the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young
Adults (CARDIA), Mark J. Pletcher and colleagues 2008 found that
prehypertension during young adulthood is common and is associated with
coronary atherosclerosis 20 years later.
The authors recommend to keep systolic pressure below 120 mm Hg before age 35
years to avoid ailments in advanced age. Pletcher points to the national
guidelines, which say that people with prehypertension should work on diet,
exercise, and lifestyle modifications in order to prevent hypertension.
Larsson, Virtamo and Wolk 2011, using data of The Cohort of Swedish Men study, found that consumption of processed meat, but not of fresh red meat, was positively associated with risk of stroke and cerebral infarction.
The authors excluded confounder such as body mass index, aspirin use, history of diabetes and hypertension, alcohol consumption, and family history of heart disease, as well as subjects' smoking history and level of physical activity.
Another outcome of this study is that meats which are believed as healthy, such as low-fat deli turkey, ham, and bologna, may increase the risk for stroke if intake is high enough. The authors suggest that sodium and nitrites in processed meats might contribute to an increase of stroke, because no association between fresh red meat and stroke could be found in the study. Heme iron or cholesterol in processed meat are therefore not to be blamed for difference of the stroke incidence between processed and fresh red meat. This study adds further evidence of negative effects of kitchen salt and nitrites.
Robert Eckel, MD, commenting the study, noted that it is difficult blame the salt or the nitrite in processed meat for the increased risk of stroke, because the study relied on a survey and assessed association, not cause and effect. The group with the highest intake of processed meat had also a healthier diet overall, including more fruit, vegetables, and whole grains.
This guideline provides an overview of the evidence on established and emerging risk factors for stroke to provide evidence-based recommendations for the reduction of risk of a first stroke.
Modifiable stroke risk factors include hypertension, exposure to cigarette smoke, diabetes, atrial fibrillation and certain other cardiac conditions, dyslipidemia, carotid artery stenosis, sickle cell disease, postmenopausal hormone therapy, poor diet, physical inactivity, and obesity and body fat distribution. Potentially modifiable risk factors include the metabolic syndrome, excessive alcohol consumption, drug abuse, use of oral contraceptives, sleep-disordered breathing, migraine, hyperhomocysteinemia, elevated lipoprotein(a), hypercoagulability, inflammation, and infection. Data on the use of aspirin for primary stroke prevention are reviewed.
The Guidelines concluded that a variety of specific factors may increase the risk of a first stroke and strategies for reducing that risk are provided. The Guidelines state further, that diet with reduced sodium that is rich in fruits and vegetables, such as a DASH-style diet, will reduce stroke risk. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends a sodium intake of less than 2.3 g/d (100 mmol/d) for the general population, and a potassium intake of at least 4.7 g/d (120 mmol/d).
Soy sauce use to reduce salt content of food preparations [131]
Goh et al 2011 report that soy sauce may help to replace 33% up to 50% of the salt content of foods without reducing the palatability. The authors noted that percentage of salt reduction achievable may be higher in a population which already use soy sauce as flavouring.
This method may be used in industrial formulations as well in home made foods, say scientists from the National University of Singapore in collaboration with soy sauce manufacturer Kikkoman.
Another study by Kremer, Mojet and Shimojo 2009 attained salt reduction of 50% in salad dressings, 17% in tomato soup and 29% in stir-fried pork, without decrease in consumer acceptance. With increased popularity of Asian foods the reduction of salt in traditional Wester European formulations becomes possible. [132]
The umami taste of soy sauce [133]
The fermentation of soy bean soy sauce production, gives a distinct delicious taste used as an umami seasoning. Umami is one of the five basic tastes together with sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Umami is a Japanese word meaning "pleasant savoury taste".
According to Lioe, Selamat and Yasuda 2010 the Japanese and Indonesian soy sauces are rich in umami components with molecular weights lower than 500 Da. Free amino acids, add to the taste in combination with salt and small peptides, which, however, are less active as flavour.
Denis Burkitt proposed in 1971 the link between colorectal cancer and dietary fibre. Inconsistent results of studies could not back this theory.
A new study of Elizabeth Jacobs from the Arizona Cancer Center, however considered the sex of the participants and found a significant benefit of fibre for men, but not for women. This may explain the discrepant results of the Wheat Bran Fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention Trial.
The Wheat Bran Fibre Trial assessed the effect of a high wheat bran fibre supplement against a low wheat bran fibre supplement men and women, randomly assigned to the supplements. The Polyp Prevention Trial studied the effect of a low-fat, high fibre diet, rich in fruit and vegetables on the recurrence of pre-cancerous polyps in the colon and rectum.
Both studies reported that the high-fibre diets had no effect of the recurrence of colorectal polyps.
The Arizona researchers from the Arizona Cancer Center re-evaluating the data of both studies observed statistically significant reduced odds of recurrence for men, but no significant association for women. [134]
The recently published results of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) trial also reported no link between a diet low in fat, and high in fruit, vegetables and whole-grain intake. This study was restricted to women and appears to agree with the results from Arizona. Poor compliance with the dietary intervention in the WHI trial do, however, raise questions about the validity of these results. [135]
Limitations of the two studies (Wheat Bran Fibre Trial and the Polyp Prevention Trial): 1.- Both had very short follow-up periods of only two to four years The latency period of the cancer is between 10 and 20 years, 2.- The use of polyps as a marker for actual cancer was criticized as questionable by Dr. Arasaradnam from Northern General Hospital in Sheffield in 2004. [136]
Vitis labrusca (Fox grape) is a specific grape native in the northeast of the United States. It is the source of many grape cultivars, including concord grapes. The characteristic "foxy" musk of V. labrusca is inherited by the Concorde grape.
A study performed by lead author Barbara Shukitt-Hale the Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University relate improved results on behavioural tests and enhanced motor performance on rats fed with Concorde grape juice, which is rich in polyphenoles. The study suggests that the effects of Concorde grape juice may be more effective than any one single Hopes are rising that component of grape juice may reverse brain aging. [137]
Concord grapes may have many health benefits such as reducing hypertension and the negative effects of second-hand smoking, but these results are tentative.
[138] [139]
M. Falchi and colleagues found that the flesh of grapes are equally cardioprotective as skin, and antioxidant potential of skin and flesh of grapes are comparable with each other despite of the fact that flesh does not possess any anthocyanin activities.
Recent studies have documented that grapes and grape juices are equally cardioprotective as red wine. despite vastly differing polyphenol content.
Several studies have linked regular consumption of red wine to reduced risk of heart disease. The skin of red grapes is a rich source of red coloured anthocianine. Red grapes are usually crushed whole, meaning the anthocyanines are transferred to resulting wine and juice, on the contrary, most white wine or white grape juices are prepared by discarding the grape skin, nourishing the belief that red wines and red grape juice are healthier than white.
M. Falchi fed three groups of rats with water only (control), grape skin extract, or grape flesh extract. The increase of malondialdehyde (MDA), a reactive carbonyl compound related to oxidative stress, was measured under ischemic and myocardial infarction conditions.
No difference was observed between the flesh and skin extracts, both groups had significantly reduced heart attack size compared with water control group.
Quantification of the polyphenol content confirmed that, while the skins had anthocyanin concentrations of about 128 milligrams per 100 grams, the flesh contained no such compounds.
However, the radical scavenging abilities of both the flesh and skin extracts were found to be the same. The flesh of the grapes did contain polyphenols but not of the anthocyanin type of grape skin. Furthermore caffeic acid, caftaric acid, and coutaric acid have been reported which are also present in white grape varieties.
Tony Hayek and colleagues studied the effect of consuming red wine, or its major polyphenol constituents catechin or quercetin, on the development of atherosclerotic lesions, in relation to the susceptibility of plasma LDL to oxidation and to aggregation in mice.
They found that the inhibition of LDL oxidation by polyphenols could be related, at least in part, to a direct effect of the polyphenols on the LDL, since both quercetin and catechin were found to bind to the LDL particle via the formation of an ether bond.
The authors conclude that dietary consumption of red wine or its polyphenolic flavonoids quercetin and, to a lesser extent, catechin leads to attenuation in the development of the atherosclerotic lesion, and this effect is associated with reduced susceptibility of their LDL to oxidation and aggregation.
The aim of the study was to study the effects of dietary supplementation with concentrated red grape juice, a source of polyphenols, on lipoprotein profile, antioxidant capacity, LDL oxidation, and inflammatory biomarkers.
The authors concluded that dietary supplementation with concentrated red grape juice improves the lipoprotein profile, reduces plasma concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers and oxidized LDL, and may favor a reduction in cardiovascular disease risk.
Polyphenols were found to prevent cardiovascular disease, but their mechanisms
of action are not understood. Gorelik and colleagues investigated the impact
of red wine polyphenols on postprandial cytotoxic lipid peroxidation products urine malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in humans, resulting from fat digestion. MDA is known as a risk of cardiovascular disease and other illnesses.
The authors found that red wine polyphenols exert a beneficial effect by the
novel new function, absorption inhibition of the lipotoxin MDA. These findings
explain the potentially harmful effects of oxidized fats found in foods and
the important benefit of dietary polyphenols in the meal.
Nutrition claims in the Philippines
The US company Procter & Gambler has launched on the Philippines market a concentrated orange powder "NutriDelight". This orange juice in form of a dehydrated powder is enriched with vitamin A, iron and iodine.
This product is claimed to " let children grow stronger, taller, and smarter.
According to P&G director Durk Jager the undersupply of these three elements is one of the most outstanding problem of worldwide nutrition. The "Nutridelight" according to Jager has been developed in cooperation with Health departments and UNICEF and was tested in Tanzania. This product may have importance in the nutrition of a wide population in case of undersupply during catastrophes where international associations try to feed people of a limited region to overcome a short period of calamity. It not suitable for the nutrition at normal times. The population which has no money to buy a balanced natural nutrition will certainly have not the possibility to achieve orange juice powder enriched with food supplements from Procter & Gambler.
Health authorities should try to get the population educated in a way to get a well balanced nutrition with local fruits,vegetables, fish and meat.
Getting back to the elementary balanced nutrition helps although the local industry, fishery and agriculture bringing jobs and the most important of all: It gives thousand and thousand all other components which are necessary to our nutrition avoiding synthetic food from pills and pharmacy.
The RDA was developed during World War II by lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling and Helen S. Mitchel under the auspices of the National Research Council. The National Research Council determined that a set of dietary standards were needed, especially given the possibility that rations would be needed during the war.
The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civilians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances, and submitted them to experts for review. The final set of allowances were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a "margin of safety."
The RDA was established by the Food and Nutrition Board of the (US) National Academy of Sciences.
In 1997 at the suggestion of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy RDA became one part of a broader set of dietary guidelines called the Dietary Reference Intake used by both the United States and Canada.
The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) had been valid from 1941 until 1989, the RDAs to evaluate and plan menus that would meet the nutrient requirements of groups as well as other applications such as interpreting food consumption records of populations, establishing standards for food assistance programs, establishing guidelines for nutrition labelling, to name a few. The RDAs were created to prevent nutrient deficiencies. They were not intended to evaluate the diets of individuals.
In 1997, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences created the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) after a extensive revision of the RDAs. The new family of nutrient reference values is organized in four types of DRI reference values:
- Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) A daily nutrient intake value that is estimated to meet the requirement of half of the healthy individuals in a life stage and gender group. EAR is used to assess dietary adequacy and as the basis for the RDA.
- Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)The average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98%) healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.
- Adequate Intake (AI) a recommended intake value based on observed or experimentally determined approximations or estimates of nutrient intake by a group (or groups) of healthy people, that are assumed to be adequate. AI is used when an RDA cannot be determined.
- Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) The highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for almost all individuals in the general population. As intake increase above the UL, the potential risk of adverse effects increases.
These dietary reference values were intended to prevent nutrient deficiencies and to reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.
Dr. George Beaton, University of Toronto, examining application of the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) among individuals and groups comes to the conclusion that the RDA lacks an acceptable scientific basis and suggests that dietary advice for both groups should be achieved through critical DRI reference values.
According to Beaton, tradition and the DRI reports themselves have created an erroneous impression that the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is intended for use with individuals, while the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) is to be used with populations.
He concludes that the median requirement and Tolerable Upper Limit (UL) are the critical reference values for both individuals and populations. The RDA is both unneeded and lacking a sound scientific basis.
According to Murphy, Barr, and Yates, Dietary each DRI category has specific uses in dietary assessment and/or planning for groups or individuals. For example, the RDA is "intended to be used as a goal for daily intake by individuals as this value estimates an intake level that has a high probability of meeting the requirement of a randomly chosen individual." The DRI paradigm is being used as a model for nutrient standards worldwide. The authors argue in favour of keeping the present thinking about it the uses of nutrients.
Beaton replied that we now live in an era of increasing demand for evidence-based nutrition and stresses the necessity of revising previous thinking and approaches as it becomes apparent that they lack evidence of validity.
The use of Dvs on the food label started in
1994, following the US Nutrition Labelling and Education Act of 1990. [147]
It is made up of two sets of references, DRVs and RDIs. But, according to Paula Kurtzweil from FDA, these two sets are "behind the scenes" in food labelling; only the Daily Value term will appear on the label to make label reading less confusing.[147]
The labelling act from 1990 requires nutrition label information to be conveyed in a way that enables the public to observe and comprehend the information readily and to understand its relative significance in the context of a total daily diet. [147]
According to Christine Lewis from FDA's Office of Food Labelling, the DV does that in two ways: First, it serves as a basis for declaring on the label the percent of the Daily Value for each nutrient that a serving of the food provides. [147]
For example, the Daily Value for fat, based on a 2,000-calorie diet, is 65 grams (g). A food that has 13 g of fat per serving would state on the label that the "percent Daily Value" for fat is 20 percent. Second, it provides a basis for thresholds that define descriptive words for nutrient content, called descriptors, such as "high fibre" and "low fat." For example, the descriptor "high fibre" can be used if a serving of food provides 20 percent or more of the Daily Value for fibre - that is, 5 g or more. [147]
a set of dietary references
that applies to fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, carbohydrate, protein, fibre, sodium, and potassium. a set of dietary references based
on the Recommended Dietary Allowances for essential vitamins and minerals and, in selected groups, protein. The name "RDI" replaces the term "U.S. RDA." a set of estimated nutrient allowances established by the National Academy of Sciences. It is updated periodically to reflect current scientific knowledge.
For more informations on US FDA dietary references, please go to their homepage of http://www.fda.gov/fdac/special/foodlabel/dvs.html
For more informations on dietary supplements please go to http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/dms/supplmnt.html
The WHO (World health Organization of the United Nations) has recommended the Daily Allowance(RDA) of vitamins and minerals given in the table below.
Linus Pauling and a group of his followers claim higher doses.
The table draws a comparison between WHO and other recommended doses.
The recommendations of WHO should be followed as the doses marked ***are likely to
be considered as overdose when used for long time.
You may find the table of RDA useful to compare with the labeling of your food complements.
| Vitamin or mineral |
RDA |
minimum |
daily |
maximum |
|---|
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) |
60 mg |
500 |
2000 |
10.000 |
| Vitamin E (d-alfa tocopherol) |
10 I.U. |
400 |
600 |
1.000 |
| Beta carotene |
|
0 mg |
15 |
15 |
| Vitamin B1 (thiamine) |
1,0-1,4 mg |
10 |
50 |
100 |
| Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) |
1,2-1,7 mg |
10 |
50 |
100 |
| Vitamin B3 (niacinamide) |
18 mg |
10 |
50 |
100 |
| Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) |
2,2 mg |
10 |
50 |
50 |
| Pantothenic acid |
4-7 mg |
50 |
100 |
200 |
| Folic acid |
|
400µ |
1.000 |
5.000 |
| Biotin |
100-200µg |
0 |
300 |
300 |
| Vitamin D |
200-300 I.U. |
0 |
200 |
400 |
| Vitamin K |
70-120µg |
0 |
0 |
120 |
| Selenium |
|
100µg |
150 |
200 |
| Chrome picolinate |
|
200µg |
200 |
400 |
| Zinc |
|
15 mg |
15 |
30 |
| Calcium |
|
500 mg |
1.000 |
1.500 |
| Magnesium |
|
200mg |
400 |
600 |
| Iodine |
150µg |
150 |
150 |
300 |
| Bioflavonoid |
|
0 |
200mg |
1.000 |
| Garlic |
|
0 |
600 mg |
900 |
| Concentrated fish oil |
|
0 |
1.000 mg |
2000 |
| Glutathione |
|
0 |
50 mg |
100 |
| Glutamine |
|
0 |
2.000 mg |
8.000 |
| Coenzyme Q10 |
|
0 |
30 mg |
240 |
| Ginkgo biloba Egb 761 |
|
0 |
120 mg |
120 |
| Iron |
0-18 mg |
0 |
0 |
5 |
| Copper |
2-3 mg |
0 |
2 |
3 |
| Manganese |
2,5-5,0 mg |
0 |
2,5 |
5,0 |
| Molybdenum |
0,15-0,5 mg |
0 |
0,15 |
0,5 |
| Fluor |
|
0mg |
0 |
0 |
| Vitamin or mineral |
RDA |
minimum |
daily |
maximum |
|---|
Vitamin B6 overdose
Heavy overdose of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine can cause alterations of mobility, psychological alterations and reactions like those of Contergan in new born.
The Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food Consumer Products and the Environment (COT) gives the advice not to exceed daily 10 mg. Supplier of vitamin B6 are meat, fish, eggs, cereals and some vegetables.
Some food complements contain dose up to 100 mg. COT tries to establish
a voluntary limit of vitamin B6 in food complements between manufacturers and
include more informations on the label. The commission has great concern with possible about damages of the nervous System in case of over dose[148].
The nutritional value of fats
Oils and fats have high nutritional value as they are rich in energy and act as transport medium of liposoluble vitamins. Some fatty acids cannot be
synthetize by human body, they are called essential fatty acids
(arachidonic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic and linolenic acid)
. They are important parts of the
synthesis of the hormone prostaglandin and are part of the structure of cell membrane [149].
The intake of fat, however is to high. Adults should reduce the intake of fat
There is a connection between the amount of fat consumed and arterial diseases, as well as duodenal cancer and mammal cancer.
It is advisable to reduce fat an to chose fat with high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Daily intake of fat
The European population has a daily intake of 130 to 150 gram/person/day. This should be reduced to 60 gram with maximum of 90 gram.
Recommended composition of fats
According to the DGE (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung) and WHO the intake of fat should be constituted by on third of saturated fatty acids, one third of monounsaturated fatty acids and one third of polyunsaturated fatty acids. (This rule is called
"The one third rule".
The amount of saturated fatty acids in nutrition is to high.
The main source of saturated fatty acids is found in meat, sausages
milk product, cakes and biscuits. This should be reduced. It should not be over 30% of total energy by
people with light manual work, and not over 35% of total energy by people for people
with heavy manual work. It should not be over 10% of
total energy. : should be about 7% of total energy and
up to 10% when the amount of saturated fatty acids lies over 10%.
: the
relation should be 5:1. : can fill up to the total amount of
total energy. : should be less than 1% of total
energy [150]
Recommended intake of Cholesterol
The European daily intake is 500 to 800 mg/person/day. This should be reduced to a maximum of 300 mg/day.
Every health organization supports the theory of an excess of animal food rich in cholesterol and saturated fatty acids being the main cause of high levels of blood fats and arteriosclerosis.
Saturated fatty acids
rise the blood cholesterol, accelerating the formation of arteriosclerosis.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids may help to reduce blood cholesterol.
Jean-Michel Chardigny and colleagues comparing the effect of trans fatty acids
(TFAs) from industrial with those of natural source found that TFAs from
natural sources significantly increased HDL cholesterol increases in
LDL-cholesterol concentrations in women but not in men. Large HDL and LDL
concentrations were modified by TFAs from natural sources but not by those
from industrially produced sources.
The authors concluded that TFAs from industrially produced and from natural
sources have different effects on CVD risk factors in women. The HDL
cholesterol-lowering property of TFAs seems to be specific to industrial
These finding were effusively belauded by the the European Dairy Association
(EDA) as it came in support of the trans fatty acids of dairy. Based on the
results of TRANSFACT the participants of the European Dairy Association's TFA
Policy Conference in Brussels, 13 February 2008 concluded that there is no
evidence on negative health effects from dairy TFA and EDA stated that dairy
TFA should therefore not be taken into consideration for labelling or nutrient
profiling for claims.
According to Willett and Mozaffarian 2008 to reduce the intake of industrial
TFA is ideally being done by replacing them with cis unsaturated fatty acids.
The Danish government and the New York City have shown that the legislation to
limit the use of partially hydrogenated vegetables oils in foods is feasible
and effective.
Multiple committees concluded that TFA intake should be as low
as possible, and continued efforts to eliminate the consumption of partially
hydrogenated vegetable oils are strongly warranted. The authors stress that
despite small differences between the metabolic effects of industrial and
ruminant TFA, there is no compelling evidence to exclude natural TFA from the
total TFA on food labels.
The pan-America Trans-Fat-Free initiative asked 12 representatives from food industries in Latin America and the Caribbean to voluntarily eliminate industrially produced trans-fatty acids of their products. A year later only few data on reformulations of the product were made available to the initiative. Reported difficulties to phase out trans-fatty were availability of oil substitutes, cost, and consumers' sensory acceptance. Because of reduced success of voluntary initiative the authors suggest that the trans-fatty acids and saturated fat in food should be regulated and strictly monitored in the Americas.
Chen and colleagues 2010 report that a diet rich in trans fats cause
atherosclerosis by reducing the responsiveness of a protein, the transforming
growth factor (TGF)-beta.
The authors found that the suppression of the responsiveness of TGF-beta in
aortic endothelium and other tissues was caused by dietary trans fats,
mediated by deposition of cholesterol into the cellular membranes in vascular
tissue. This may also be the cause of other trans fat-related diseases and
disorders, such as cancer and immunity.
In this study high trans fat diet increased the expression of VCAM-1, a marker
of early lesions of atherosclerosis, reduced the expression of TGF-beta type
I and II receptors and decreased the levels of phosphorylated Smad2, important
TGF-beta response indicator. These markers returned to normal levels when diet
was shifted to low trans fats.
The authors concluded that transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta protects against
atherosclerosis.
Blood levels of Cholesterol
- HDL cholesterol should be at least 45 mg/dl for females and 35 mg/dl for male.
The maximum of cholesterol for adults allowed is 200 mg.
- Values of cholesterol between 200 and 250 mg/dl have to be controlled. They can be tolerated
if the bad LDL is low and the good HDL is high and there are no secondary risks (high arterial pressure, smoke, diabetes, excessive body weight,
no sports are made and continuous stress). The higher secondary risks are more cholesterol values have to be reduced. According Lancet 1996 every third person with more then 40 years, smoking, with high arterial pressure and cholesterol over 230 mg/dl of blood will suffer an infarct. In Germany
261000 persons die of infarct each year.
- Values of cholesterol over 250 md/dl are always coronary risks. Everyone should know his values of blood cholesterol. Values over 200 mg/dl
should be reason enough to change the way of life, the nutrition and the
physical constitution.
With a modification of nutrition indicated by a dietician blood cholesterol
may be reduced by 20%. (250 mg/dl may be brought down to 200 mg/dl without medication.)
It is therefore important to stop smoking, to have a healthy nutrition and
practice sports.
According to the WHO healthy nutrition should have 45 to 55% complex
carbohydrates, 30% of oils and fats having more than half of her fatty acids
unsaturated. (Some say 10% saturated, 10% monounsaturated and 10%
polyunsaturated fatty acids.) The intake of cholesterol should be under 300
mg/day and less than 5 gram of salt /day. This means nutrition rich in pasta,
fish, olive oil, vegetables and fruits. The daily sport should be 30 minutes biking or walking. Infarct risk and diabetes II can so be
reduced significantly. It is important to consider the fat intake not in
percentage of calories but as grams of fat.[156]
Takachi and colleagues 2009 assessed the effect of salt and salted foods.
Cooking and table salt was found to increase the risk of cardiovascular
disease (CVD) but not cancer. Salt preserved foods, such as salted fish roe,
however, were associated with a higher risk of total cancer.
The authors concluded that increased intake of table salt may boost the risk
of heart disease, while increased consumption of salted foods may increase the
risk of cancer, probably resulting from carcinogens called N-nitroso
compounds which may be formed from nitrate or nitrite preservatives.
According to Dr Margaret Chan, Director-General of WHO virtually every country
needs to do more to reduce tobacco consumption. The WHO Report of the Global
Tobacco Epidemic presented six strategies to reverse this growing menace.
No country fully implements all of the MPOWER policies and 80% of countries
don't fully implement even one policy. While tobacco control measures are
sometimes controversial, they save lives and governments need to step up and do the right thing.
The six MPOWER strategies are:
- Monitor tobacco use and prevention policies
- Protect people from tobacco smoke
- Offer help to quit tobacco use
- Warn about the dangers of tobacco
- Enforce bans on tobacco advertising, promotion and sponsorship
- Raise taxes on tobacco
According to the report tobacco epidemic is shifting to the developing world.
- LDL cholesterol > 160 mg/dl (4,14 mmol/l)
- LDL cholesterol > 130 mg/dl (3,36 mmol/l) with two or more secondary risks and HDL cholesterol > 35 mg/dl=0,91 mmol/l
Secondary risks are: Arterial hypertension, smoke, overweight, Diabetes mellitus, peripheral arteriosclerosis and cerebral sclerosis
- Arterial hypertension:
Blood pressure up to 140/90 mmHg is considered as normal.
Blood pressure from 140/90 mmHg up to 160/95 should be put under medical supervision.
Blood pressure higher than 160/95 is considered as hypertension which needs medication.
- LDL cholesterol > 100 mg/dl (2,6 mmol/l) in case of manifested coronary diseases
- LDL cholesterol > 110 mg/dl (2,8 mmol/l) in children and juveniles
Isolated values of total blood cholesterol does not give safe informations for
therapy control. Below values are cited as being traditional:
| Adults < 30 years |
total cholesterol < 180 mg/dl (4,66 mmol/l) |
| Adults > 65 years |
total cholesterol < 240 mg/dl (6,21 mmol/l) |
| Children |
total cholesterol < 160 mg/dl (4,14 mmol/l) |
| Diet necessary |
total Cholesterol < 200 mg/dl (5,17 mmol/l) |
| |
LDL/HDL quotient < 5,0 |
The following measures lower the blood cholesterol in great number of cases.
- Reduction of calories
- Reduction of fat in nutrition
- Change of nutrition related the composition of fatty acids, substituting
saturated fatty acids
- Reduction of cholesterol in nutrition. An interesting way to reduce cholesterol
in nutrition is made with the introduction of a low-cholesterol egg. These eggs are produced in Malaysia and also in Germany feeding chicken with monounsaturated fatty acids, maize and palm oil. They have 100 to 160 mg cholesterol which is 25 to 50% below normal [159].
In Germany there are being made efforts to produce eggs with high level of omega-3 fatty acids. Hens are being fed with a special type of grains. This gets eggs rich on polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 type. The daily intake of omega-3 fatty acids should be 0,5% of total calories (with a diet of 2.200 kcal/day = approximately 1 g omega 3 fatty acids)(information from EIVIt Fischer Weppler GmbH PB 100572 76486 Baden-Baden).
Rise of amount of fibres in nutrition
Reduction of the amount of meat in nutrition
Reduction of Broca Index below 1,0.
Broca Index Body weight in Kg = Body length in cm-100
Body Mass Index < 25
Body Mass Index = Body weight in Kg : (Body height in meters)²
Before medication is used a 6 month cholesterol lowering diet should be tried.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics cholesterol-reducing
medications should be considered for children who are more than eight years
old and who have high LDL concentrations. Younger patients with elevated
cholesterol readings should focus on weight reduction and increased activity
while receiving nutritional counseling. According to the new policy diets with
reduced-fat dairy products, such as two percent milk should be considered for
overweight children as young as one year of age.
Some critics on this policy came from Stephen Daniells, science editor of
Foodnavigator. He argues that diet is better than controlling cholesterol in
kids with statins. Changing eating habits and lifestyle of obese kids should
consider plant sterols at a daily amount of 1,5 to 3 grams/day, oatmeal and
beta-glucan from oats, soy,rich in omega-3 rich oils, and even garlic , says
Daniells. [161] Savica, Bellinghieri and Kopple 2010 resumed the effect of nutrition on blood pressure and pointed to excessive energy intake, obesity, high sodium chloride and high alcohol intake as primary causes of hypertension. Obesity is physiologically associated with increased renin-angiotensin-aldosterone and sympathetic nervous systems, possibly other mineralcorticoid activity, insulin resistance, salt-sensitive hypertension and reduced kidney function.
To reduce blood pressure high intakes of potassium, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and protein, along with exercise and possibly vitamin D are recommended. Other foods, such as amino acids, tea, green coffee bean extract, dark chocolate, and foods high in nitrates, the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, which is high in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, poultry, fish, nuts and low-fat dairy products, and the DASH low-sodium diet .have been suggested by some studies to reduce blood pressure.
Other authors suggest a healthy lifestyle to reduce mild hypertension, notably:
Vegetarian Diet which contains more potassium, complex carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fat, fibre, calcium, magnesium, vitamin C and vitamin A. Sugar may be related to hypertension increasing the production of adrenaline which promotes contraction of the blood vessels. Drastically salt-reduced, low-calorie "rice diet." A number of common vegetables and spices have been suggested to reduce hypertension, such as celery, garlic, onion, tomato, broccoli, carrot, saffron
Controversy about Statins [163]
Some scientists take a skeptical view of the need for many people to require
statin treatment. Given the wide indications for which statins are prescribed,
and the declining benefit in groups at lower baseline risk of cardiovascular
events, the evidence base for expanded statin use has been questioned by some
researchers. Some groups claim that statins are not as beneficial or safe as
suggested.
Francis and colleagues 2010 found that a daily consumption of statin, with the
exception of pravastatin, reduced the risk of cardiovascular disease caused by
fatty hamburger with cheese and a small milkshake. The authors stress that cardiovascular harm caused by unhealthy fatty diet may be reduced giving
statin as supplement to their meals.
The authors suggest that fast food chains offer statin in addition to free
condiments such as salt, sugar and spices. However, statins may not be a
substitute for a healthy lifestyle, varied diet low in saturated fats, regular
exercise, weight loss, and smoking cessation.
Zhen-Yu Chen and colleaugues 2009 found that oxycholesterol boosts total
cholesterol levels and promotes atherosclerosis more than non-oxidized
cholesterol. It also damages cells and DNA. The authors stress that fried
and processed food, particularly fast-food, contains high amounts of
oxycholesterol. They recommend to avoiding these foods and eating a diet that
is rich in antioxidants, such as fresh fruits and vegetables, beans, and
certain herbs and spices. whole grains, seeds, and nuts.
A diet high in oxycholesterol rose blood cholesterol in Hamsters to 22 percent
and developed greater deposition of cholesterol (atherosclerotic plaques) in
the lining of their arteries and a tendency to develop larger deposits of
cholesterol compared with hamsters which were on non-oxidized cholesterol
diet. The deposition of oxycholesterol also reduced the elasticity of
arteries,reducing the ability to transport more blood when needed.
It is not known if Statin is effective against oxycholesterol.
Sterol oxidation products derived from cholesterol and phytosterol are formed
during the processing and storage of foods.
Bang and colleagues 2008 report that a diet with both oxysterols increase
4beta-hydroxycholesterol and total oxycholesterol in the liver, but the
oxycholesterol-fed mice had a lower level of cerebral 24S-hydroxycholesterol
and a higher level of the serum triacylglycerols than the control and
oxyphytosterol groups.
The authors concluded that both oxysterols in food are accumulated in the body,
but differed in their biological effect.
Phytosterols may undergo oxidative processes similar to the cholesterol
oxidation. Consumption of phytosterols could therefore add to oxyphytosterols
from foods or biologic formation from phytosterols, presenting a concern in
terms of food quality and health, similar to oxycholesterol. Hovenkamp and
colleagues 2008, however, stress that some data suggest that oxyphytosterols,
depending on the type of oxidation product, have beneficial properties.
The oxysterol:cholesterol ratio in atherosclerotic plaque play an active role
in plaque development. Oxysterols in plaque are derived both
non-enzymatically, either from the diet and/or from in vivo oxidation, or are
formed enzymatically during cholesterol breakdown, like the 27-hydroxycholesterol.
Brown and Jessup 1999 accentuate that in vitro, oxysterols interferes in the
biology of cellular cholesterol homeostasis, reduces vascular reactivity and
are cytotoxic and/or induce cell death. Injection of oxysterols into animals
causes acute heart toxicity, however, studies concerning oxysterol in diet
have yielded contrary results related to heart diseases.
The authors comment that there is no direct evidence yet in humans that
oxysterols contribute to atherogenesis. However, several studies found that
oxysterol levels are elevated in human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) subfractions
and raised plasma levels of a specific oxysterol (7beta-hydroxycholesterol) may
be associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis.
Approval of products in EU: Regulation (EC) No 258/97 concerning
novel foods and novel food ingredients
Before any new food product can be introduced on the European market it must be
rigorously assessed for safety. In the UK the assessment of novel foods is
carried out by an independent committee of scientists appointed by the Food
Standards Agency, the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP).
Industry on both sides of the Atlantic are calling to reduce the hurdles for the approval of new foods and new supplements. In Europe such a movement was spurred on by a recent decision by the UK's Food Standards Agency (FSA) to refer Cargill's vegetarian glucosamine hydrochloride ingredient to further review by EFSA prior to granting novel food status. This matter should, however, be analysed very carefully, according to a comment of Stephen Daniells, from Food Navigator.
Novel food and supplements are approved to be marketed in USA by the FDA and in Europe by the EFSA following the Novel Foods Regulation EC 258/97. [170]
This ingredient was widely used as dietary supplement since 2004, and has been approved in USA under the less strict way of its self-affirmed GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) for certain food and beverage applications, which Cargill proclaimed in March 2007. It may be used in a variety of specific mainstream foods and beverages. Cargill stresses that glucosamine added to orange juice helps to protect cartilage and joints from the stresses of normal daily activities. [171]
The UK Food Standards Agency, alleging that it is unknown how the ingredient affects glucose metabolism, asked the EFSA to review it considering diabetic concerns. The industry, leaded by the Confederation of Food and Drink Industries of the EU (CIAA) and he Alliance for a Competitive European Industry (ACEI) intensified lobbying for laxer regulations pointing to America to boost innovations.
European Commission would be well advised not to ease regulations, adopt the US GRAS system, or charging fees for processing dossiers so as it is being done there.
There is an unhealthy movement in the USA going on. It puts economic development in front of safety. This is most painfully noted in the case of strategy to avoid climate change last month at the APEC Conference in Australia and in the President Bush's Climate Conference in Washington denying clearly any activity which could hinder the economy. This works in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol, backed by European Countries. Failure of the next climate conference at Bali in December will endanger staple food supply of Africa and Asia. Prices will increase on account of the competition of biofuel versus food.
The FDA finds itself amidst the interests of the industry and does weaken in
relation to safety, such as the approval of GRAS.
A sad anniversary of Thalidomide is being commemorated in Germany. It was sold
under the generic name Contergan, by the German pharmaceutical company
Grünetal. Approximately 10,000 children were born with severe malformities,
because their mothers had taken thalidomide during pregnancy.
Phthalimidoglutarimide was obtained by heating the peptide
phthaloylisoglutamine.
High doses did not kill rodents, rabbits, cats or dogs, nor show any other
side effects. The Grünenthal research team began to describe thalidomide as
"nontoxic", with no teratogenicity tests (tests on pregnant animals), no
clinical trial plans, and no scientific rationale.
European food regulators and the European Commission should stick to food safety policy and never forget the lesson of Contergan where low hurdles and
profit caused horrible malfomities.
The Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP ) is an independent
group of experts who advise the Agency on any matters relating to novel foods and
novel processes. Varied fruit juices have been subjected to approval, some of
them enriched with plant sterols.
Pomegranate juice reverse proatherogenic effects of disturbed
arterial flow
[173]
According to F. de Nigris and colleagues, atherosclerosis is enhanced in
arterial segments exposed to disturbed flow. Perturbed shear stress increases
the expression of oxidation-sensitive responsive genes (such as ELK-1 and
p-JUN) in the endothelium. Evidence suggests that polyphenolic antioxidants
contained in the juice derived from the pomegranate can contribute to the
reduction of oxidative stress and atherogenesis.
In their study, the authors conclude that the proatherogenic effects induced
by perturbed shear stress can be reversed by chronic administration of
pomegranate juice.
Heart UK and Coronary Heart Diseases [174]
Heart UK, the Cholesterol Charity specialises in patients who inherit high
cholesterol, with particular concern for those who remain undiagnosed with the
condition called Familial Hypercholesterolaemia (FH), or inherited high cholesterol (IHC)
The Charity maintains relationships with companies whose product is
beneficial to a healthy diet particularly within the field of high
cholesterol, approving those products like pomegranate juice and others with
evidence to support their heart health benefits. [174]
Supplementary juice product made from blackcurrants and blueberries, rich in
antioxidants and vitamin C are being investigated on their effects on
cardiovascular diseases.
The Heart UK Charity stresses that diet is central to the treatment of
hyperlipidaemia. Lipid-lowering drugs are generally only prescribed when
treatment goals are not met through dietary change alone. For those who do
require drug therapy, following a pattern of healthy eating is strongly
encouraged.
Sanders and colleagues measured the effect of low dietary ratio of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6:n-3) (3:1)on high risk factors of ischemic heart disease. The risk factors are known to be elevated fibrinogen, activated factor XII (FXIIa), and factor VII coagulant activity (FVIIc). The authors concluded that decreasing the n-6:n-3 to 3:1 by increasing the intake of EPA and DHA lowers fasting and postprandial plasma triacylglycerol concentrations in older persons but does not influence hemostatic risk factors.
Dorothy Klimis-Zacas and colleagues investigated the
effects of wild blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium) on functional and
structural molecules in the walls of the aorta of rats.
The study was focused on glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which are carbohydrate
molecules in the blood vessel walls that are directly or indirectly involved
in a variety of functions, including lipoprotein metabolism, blood
coagulation, and organization of the extracellular matrix.
The increased intake of polyphenols may provide protection against coronary
heart disease and stroke.
Blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium) are one of the richest sources of
antioxidants among fruits and vegetables. Phenolic compounds from berry extracts inhibit human low density lipoprotein
and liposome oxidation.
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and proteoglycans (PGs) are structural components of
aortas interacting with compounds such as enzymes, cytokines, growth factors,
proteins and lipoproteins and their subsequent role in degenerative diseases.
The presence of three GAG populations were studied: Hyaluronan (HA), heparan
sulfate (HS) and galactosaminoglycans (GalAGs).
The study demonstrated that increased galactosaminoglycans (GalAGs) content,
together with a lower concentration of oversulfated disaccharides in both HS
and GalAG populations in the aortas of rats fed with a supplement of
Blueberries was found to be a protective factor.
The authors conclude that a diet rich in blueberries results in structural
alterations in rat aortic tissue GAGs, affect cellular signal transduction
pathways and biological function of GAG molecules within the vascular environment.
Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)is a fruit of south east Asia. It is rich in mangostin, one of a family of active compounds known as xanthones. Mangosteen inhibits the oxidation of LDL-cholesterol and the activity of PGE2, COX-1, and COX-2 (prostaglandin E2 and cyclooxygenases-1 and -2) - key factors involved in inflammatory conditions.
Mangostin is a natural organic compound isolated from various parts of the mangosteen tree. It is a yellow crystalline solid. Mangostin and a variety of other xanthones from mangosteen have been investigated for biological properties including anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. [177]
The extract of the mangosteen plant has a strong inhibitory effect on Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Therefore, it could become a possible alternative treatment for acne according to Chomnawang. It also provides in-vitro antibacterial activity against staphylococcus aureus [178] [179]
The active substances of the crude extract of the fruit hull of mangosteen were identified as alpha-mangostin and gamma-mangostin. The structures of alpha-mangostin and gamma-mangostin is free from nitrogen atom. It does not resemble to the common structures of histamine and serotonin receptor antagonists. These compounds may therefore become novel types of lead compounds for histamine and serotonin receptor antagonists, helping to fight allergies and inflammation. [180] Three
new xanthones, mangostenol (1), mangostenone A (2), and mangostenone B (3), were isolated from the green fruit hulls of Garcinia mangostana, along with the known xanthones, trapezifolixanthone, tovophyllin B (4), alpha- and beta-mangostins, garcinone B, mangostinone, mangostanol, and the flavonoid epicatechin. [182]
Four new compounds of Garcinia mangostana were isolated byYang YL and col: Three minor xanthones, garcimangosone A (1), garcimangosone B (2), and garcimangosone C (3), and a benzophenone glucoside, garcimangosone D (4). The oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) may
play an important role in atherosclerosis. Mangostin, isolated from Garcinia mangostana was found to act as a free radical scavenger to protect the LDL from oxidative damage in vitro system. Researches
with crude methanolic extract from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana using human breast cancer (SKBR3) cell line as a model system suggestes that the methanolic extract from the pericarp of Garcinia mangostana had strong antiproliferation, potent antioxidation and induction of apoptosis. According to Moongkarndi the results of the study indicates that this substance can show different activities and has potential for cancer chemoprevention which were dose dependent as well as exposure time dependent.
Epidemiologic studies Western countries linked dietary factors such as total fat, saturated fatty acids (SFAs), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), n-3 series fatty acids, and cholesterol with the incidence of ischemic heart disease.
The most relevant studies were the Western Electric Study, the Zutphen Study,
the Honolulu Heart Program, the Puerto Rico Heart Health Program, the
Ireland-Boston Diet-Heart Study, and the Seven Countries Study. A total fat
intakes of 35-40% of energy had been found in Western countries. Recommended
dietary fat allowance in Western countries: Fat intake should be less than
30% of energy come from fat to prevent fat-related diseases.
According to many studies saturated fat from foods, such as meat products,
hard cheese, cream and palm oil, increase serum cholesterol.
Studying the effect of dietary fatty acids on atherogenesis lead researcher,
Dr. David CelermajerStephen, J. Nicholls and colleagues found that
consumption of a saturated fat reduces the anti-inflammatory potential of HDL
and impairs arterial endothelial function. In contrast, the anti-inflammatory
activity of HDL improves after consumption of polyunsaturated fat. They found
mechanisms by which different dietary fatty acids may influence key
atherogenic processes due to anti-inflammatory properties of high-density
lipoproteins (HDL) and vascular function.
Raised levels Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell
adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) were found to be a response of the immune
system which results in inflammation of the vascular endothelian.
A saturated fat meal made HDL-cholesterol to be less effective at inhibiting
the expression of both ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 and polyunsaturated meal caused HDL
to have increased inhibitory activity compared HDL from fasting plasma.
Labelling of the content of saturated fat and trans fatty acids could help to
reduce the risk of hear disease by choosing products with reduced content of
saturated fatty acids.
Depression and lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids [192]
In order to examine
whether depression was associated with lower levels of omega-3 FAs in serum
phospholipids cancer patients were divided in three groups: major depression
group a minor depression group and a nondepression group.
There were no differences between the major depression group and nondepression
group in any FAs. The minor depression group had higher mean levels of
docosahexaenoic acid.
These results suggested that serum FAs are associated
with minor, but not major, depression in lung cancer patients.
Hirako et al. 2011 report that low-dose fish oil ingestion reduced hepatic lipid accumulation in mice, increased fatty acid oxidation-related hepatic gene expressions, and reduced the hepatic mRNA levels of fatty acid synthase (FAS), compared with animals fed fed with safflower oil.
Fatty acid synthase (FAS) is an enzyme known to catalyse fatty acid synthesis. Increased fatty acid oxidation-related hepatic gene expressions were higher in fish oil fed groups. The authors suggest that low-dose fish oil diets improve lipid metabolism by acting on lipid metabolism-related genes in the liver and increasing fecal cholesterol excretion, and that these benefits may come from the high content of omega-3 fatty acids of fish oil.
The Omega-6 poly-unsaturated fatty acid, Arachidonic acid, has been shown to
enhance the proliferation of malignant prostate epithelial cells and increase
the risk of advanced prostate cancer.
Invasion of the human bone marrow takes place. This invasion is mediated by
the arachidonic acid metabolite prostaglandin E2.
Mick Brown and colleagues found, however, when Omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty
acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid at a ratio of 1 : 2
Omega-3: Omega-6 were present the spread of cancer cells was stopped.
Brasky et al 2011 suggest that high levels of omega-3 fatty acids reduce heart diseases, but may harm the prostate. The authors report that high levels of omega-3 fatty acid (docosahexaenoic acid, or DHA), rises the risk of developing aggressive, high-grade prostate cancer by two and a half times compared to men with low DHA intake. Data of serum concentrations of omega-3, omega-6, and trans-fatty acids of the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial were collected between 1994 and 2003. Trans-fatty acids from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils, linked to inflammation and heart disease, were associated with 50% reduced risk of high-grade prostate cancer. Both types did not raise the risk of low-grade prostate cancer. They also found that omega-6 fatty acid, common in most vegetable oils, was not linked to a raised risk of either high-grade or low-grade prostate cancer.
The findings of Brasky and colleagues are confusing as chronic inflammation are known to increase the risk of several cancers, and the omega-3 fatty acids of fish and fish oil supplements have anti-inflammatory effects, and mega-6 fats in vegetable oil and trans-fats found in fast foods, may promote inflammation. The authors say that these findings demonstrate the complexity of the association of nutrition and chronic diseases, such as inflammation and prostate cancer. Anyhow, the beneficial effects of eating fish to prevent heart disease outweigh any harm related to prostate cancer risk, say the authors, and experts recommend 450 milligrams of omega-3 DHA per day as part of a healthy diet.
In a study of 2010 by Kristal et al dietary calcium was positively associated with low-grade cancer but inversely associated with high-grade cancer. Diet or supplements, such as lycopene, long-chain n-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, vitamin E, and selenium, were not significantly associated with cancer risk. The authors stress further that high intake of n-6 fatty acids may increase prostate cancer risk. A meta-analysis of Heiner Bucher
and colleagues suggests that dietary and nondietary intake of n-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids reduces overall mortality, mortality due to
myocardial infarction, and sudden death in patients with coronary heart disease. In this study 3114 patients with angina were
distributed in four groups:
- advised to eat two portions of oily fish each week, or to take three fish oil capsules daily;
- advised to eat more fruit, vegetables and oats;
- given both the above types of advice;
- and given no specific dietary advice.
A study of Burr and colleagues found that the advice to eat more fruit resulted
in no detectable effect on mortality. Men advised to eat oily fish, and
particularly those supplied with fish oil capsules, had a higher risk of
cardiac death. The result is unexplained, but caused a high repercussion in
non-medical press like "Der Spiegel" denying any protection again cancer and
are of no help against depression. [199]
Health benefits of oats and oats-based products [200]
Mark B. Andon and James W. Anderson assessed the literature of the last 10
years concerning oats and oats-based products. They found that all concluded that consumption of oats and oat-based products
significantly reduces total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein
cholesterol concentrations without adverse effects on high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol or triglyceride concentrations, extending it to other health
benefits, such as reduce the risk for increased blood pressure, weight gain,
and type-2 diabetes, reduce LDL cholesterol as part of a weight-loss
programme, and turn LDL cholesterol less susceptible to oxidation, and that
Beta-glucan from oats may be responsible for decreases to LDL-C levels.
The authors concluded that the consumption of oats and oat-based products
should be encouraged as part of an overall lifestyle medicine approach for the
prevention of cardiovascular disease.
Despite the consistency of effects seen in trials of wholegrain oats, the
positive findings should be interpreted cautiously. Many of the trials
identified were short term, of poor quality and had insufficient power. Most
of the trials were funded by companies with commercial interests in wholegrains.
There is a need for well-designed, adequately powered, longer term randomised
controlled studies in this area. In particular there is a need for randomised
controlled trials on wholegrain foods and diets other than oats.
The authors point to a lack of studies on other wholegrains or wholegrain
diets. Hooper and colleague in a meta-analysis
of randomised control trials and cohort studies concluded that long chain and
shorter chain omega 3 fats do not have a clear effect on total mortality,
combined cardiovascular events, or cancer. Trial results were inconsistent and
showed no strong evidence of reduced mortality or cardiovascular events in
participants taking additional omega 3 fats.
It is not clear whether long chain or short chain omega 3 fats (together or
separately) reduce or increase total mortality, cardiovascular events, cancer,
or strokes. The findings do not rule out an important effect of omega-3 fats
on total mortality, as robust trials at low risk of bias reported few deaths.
There is no evidence that the source (dietary or supplemental) and dose of
omega-3 fats affected the effectiveness of long chain omega-3 fats.
Hooper looked for an explanation why the study by Burr et al contradict the
other large studies by not suggesting a benefit of omega-3. The authors
examined the harmful cumulative effects of methylmercury in the long Burry
trial, the fact that a specific angina patient group was chosen, and if oily
fish could have a different effect as fish oil supplements, but no
explanation was found. It is therefore not clear why the results of Burr et al
differ from the other large studies on fish based omega- 3. The authors
conclude that the effect of omega 3 fats on cardiovascular disease is smaller
than previously thought, or that its beneficial effect is limited to a
specific group not represented in the study by Burr et al.
The authors add as final recommendation that UK guidelines encourage the
general public to eat more oily fish, and higher amounts are advised after
myocardial infarction (supported by trials after myocardial infarction). This
advice should continue at present but the evidence should be reviewed
regularly. It is probably not appropriate to recommend a high intake of omega
3 fats for people who have angina but have not had a myocardial infarction. In an editorial in 2006 Brunner states that
for the general public some omega-3 fat is good for health. Long chain omega 3
fatty acids are structural components of neuronal and other cell membranes,
and they modulate the production of eicosanoids and inflammatory cytokines.
Whether omega-3 fat prevents cognitive impairment and dementia is currently
being tested in trials. Extreme nutritional deficiency of these fats results
in a neuropathy that can be reversed with rapeseed oil or other vegetable oils
containing alfa-linolenic acid (18:3 omega 3). Alfa-Linolenic acid is a
precursor of long chain omega-3, but endogenous conversion to eicosapentaenoic
acid (20:5 omega-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 omega-3) is limited and inefficient.
Larsson, Virtamo and Wolk 2010 examined data of 34.670 women in the Swedish Mammography Cohort. Over 14 years 1680 incident cases of stroke, including 1310 cerebral infarctions, 233 hemorrhagic strokes, and 137 unspecified strokes were registered. The authors found that women who ate more than three servings of fish per week had a 16% lower risk of total stroke than women who ate less than one serving a week, However, cerebral infarction or hemorrhagic stroke were not reduced by diet rich in fish.
Fatty fish like salmon, whitefish, char, herring and mackerel were not significantly associated with risk of stroke. In Sweden salmon and herring are eaten salty. This might cancel the health benefits of the omega 3 PUFAs. Claims of benefits of moderate consumption of fatty fish should therefore still remain valid, say the authors.
These results suggest that the consumption of fish, especially of lean fish, may reduce risk of stroke in women. Fish is source of omega 3 PUFAs selenium and taurin. Selenium acts as antioxidant and taurin reduces blood pressure and lowers the level of triglycerides in serum. Hooper et al. address the
risks and benefits of omega-3 fats mentioning contaminants such as
methylmercury, dioxins and dioxin like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
Michael J. James and colleagues analysed the anti-inflammatory effects of fish
oil advising patients to take 15mls fish oil daily on juice (equivalent to 14
standard capsules daily) Third party analysis showed dioxins and indicator
PCBs, which can be reduced by molecular distillation during processing of fish
oil, to be below the level of detection and mercury present at 0.006mg/kg.
Analysing mercury levels in both urine and blood in patients who had taken
fish oil 15ml/day for at least 3 years low levels within the normal reference
range and in most cases at or below the limit of detection were found.
In evaluating the risks of fish oil one needs to consider the hazards of
treatments it displaces. This collateral damage clearly outweighs any likely
hazards associated with fish oil use.
Akira Sekikawa and colleagues 2008 report that Japanese born and living in Japan
had two-fold higher blood omega- 3 levels and lower atherosclerotic events
compared with a population of white and Japanese living in the US which presented
low levels of blood omega-3 and high coronary diseases. According to the authors
marine-derived n-3 fatty acids at low levels are cardioprotective through their
antiarrhythmic effect.
The authors concluded that the diet in Japan rich in fish, with men consuming an
average of 100 grams every day, result in high levels of omega-3 fatty acids
which may help to prevent the buildup of cholesterol in the arteries.
The authors stress that increasing fish intake to two times a week for healthy
people is currently recommended in the U.S. The study shows that much higher
intake of fish observed in the Japanese may have strong anti-atherogenic effect,
which are lifestyle and not genetic differences related.
With the introduction of Advanced BioNutrition's DHA from microalgae rather
than from fish meal and oil, there is the added benefit of the fish fed with
these microalgae to bee a completely renewable and contaminant-free resource
which can be certified as organic.
The fermentation process for the production of plant DHA uses the microalgae
Crypthecodinium cohnii as well as some other microalgae.
DHA and ARA are used infant formulas. The best source of DHA, an omega-3 fatty
acid, has traditionally been fish oil.
DHA from microalgae avoids mercury contamination of fish oil. Other vegetarian
sources such as flax oil are considerably less bioavailable.
Other publications on this matter are:
Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, et al. Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol:
quantitative metaanalysis of metabolic ward studies. Brit Med J. 1997;314:112-7.
Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester ADM, et al.: Effects of dietary fatty acids and
carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids
and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled studies. Am J Clin Nutr.
2003;77:1146-55.
Ana Paula Antunes Corrêa and colleagues 2008 verified the possibility of
using supercritical CO2 to concentrate polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids in the
form of natural fish oil. The authors found that 7.8 MPa and 301.15 K were the
best oil fractioning conditions. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) could not be
fractionalized.
Espinosa and colleagues 2008 studied the thermodynamics, the simulation and the
optimization of supercritical extraction of fish oil fatty acid ethyl esters with ethane as alternative solvent to carbon dioxide for the production of
pharmaceutical grade concentrates of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
docohexaenoic acid (DHA) esters, which are the most valuable omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acid esters. The study included ethane-ester interaction
parameters. The authors found a higher solubility of fatty acid ethyl esters in
ethane, as well as a slightly better selectivity to EPA and DHA.
Perretti and colleagues 2007 used supercritical fractionation of fish oil fatty
acid ethyl esters to obtain a lipid fraction enriched in Omega-3 fatty acids and
modified EPA/DHA ratio. The authors found supercritical fluid fractionation to
be useful to change the composition of lipids. The use of proper fractionation
temperatures and pressures along the column influenced the solvent-to-feed ratio
to obtain fractions with suitable EPA/DHA ratio for market requirements.
Omega-3 fatty acids levels in fresh beef from feedlots [211]
A feedlot or feedyard is a type of concentrated animal feeding operation (also
known as factory farming) which is used for fattening livestock, notably beef cattle, prior to slaughter. Aside from ethical and environmental concerns,
feedlots have come under criticism for human health reasons. The tissues of
feedlot-raised cattle have far more saturated fat than that of grass-fed
cattle, some sources say up to 500 percent more. Feedlot-raised beef may after
long periods on feed have reduced healthy omega-3 fatty acids because of the
corn-and-grain diets of the cattle.
Maddock and colleagues assessed the effects of flax addition and flax
processing on feedlot performance and carcass characteristics. The researchers
found that feeding 8% flax to feedlot heifers increased gain and efficiency,
and processing flax increased available energy and resulted in increased
efficiency of gain and increased levels of n-3 fatty acids in fresh beef.
[212] William E. Connor in a supplement in 2000 states that n-3 Fatty acids
favorably affect atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, inflammatory
disease, and perhaps even behavioural disorders. [214]
Lopez-Garcia and colleagues found in 2004 that the intake of alfa-linolenic
acid was inversely related to plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein
(CRP), and E-selectin. (n-3) fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic and
docosahexaenoic) were inversely related to soluble intracellular adhesion
molecule (sICAM-1) and soluble vascular adhesion molecule (sVCAM-1). Total
(n-3) fatty acids had an inverse relation with CRP, E-selectin, sICAM-1, and
sVCAM-1.
The researchers conclude that dietary (n-3) fatty acids are associated with
levels of these biomarkers reflecting lower levels of inflammation and
endothelial activation, which might explain in part the effect of these fatty
acids in preventing cardiovascular disease.
Giugliano in a review in 2006, states that the incidence of coronary heart
disease may be reduced with a diet comprising adequate omega-3 fatty acids
intake, reduction of saturated and trans-fats, and consumption of a diet high
in fruits, vegetables, nuts, and whole grains and low in refined grains.
Prudent dietary patterns may reduce inflammation associated with the metabolic syndrome. The intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids or fish is inversely associated
with serum C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations.
K. Niu and colleagues, studying in 2006 the effect of high intake of of
omega-3 fatty acids from a diet rich in marine products, found that greater
intake of n-3 PUFAs was independently related to a lower prevalence of high C-
reactive protein concentrations in an older Japanese population with a diet
rich in marine products, suggesting that even very high intakes of n-3 PUFAs
may lower serum C- reactive protein concentrations.
Jan L. Bleslow in 2006 writes that fish oil containing the n-3 fatty acids
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is associated with
decreased cardiovascular death, whereas consumption of the vegetable
oil-derived n-3 fatty acid alfa-linolenic acid is not as effective.
At doses >3 g/d, EPA plus DHA can improve cardiovascular disease risk factors,
including decreasing plasma triacylglycerols, blood pressure, platelet
aggregation, and inflammation, while improving vascular reactivity. The American
Heart Association recommends that everyone eat oily fish twice per week and that
those with coronary heart disease eat 1 g/d of EPA plus DHA from oily fish or
supplements.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), known as "trans-10, cis-12 CLA", is found in
partially hydrogenated vegetable oils and some dietary supplements. CLA is
found to be related to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease causing diabetes and
obesity.
Darshan S. Kelley and colleagues found that DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), and
EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) from fish oils may reduce the effects of CLA.
Fish-oil, together with CLAsupplements, prevented harmful side effects of CLA in animals.
DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) occur in different
amounts and ratios in fatty or oily fish and other sea food. The authors
determined which one of these fatty acids is the active part of fish oils. They
found that DHA protects against both CLA-induced insulin resistance and
CLA-induced non-alcoholic fatty-liver disease. EPA offered only partial
protection against CLA-induced fatty liver disease and no protection against
insulin resistance.
Adinopectine is an hormone produced by fat cells. Low levels
of this hormone is associated with insulin resistance, leading to diabetes. CLA
depletes the adipose tissue where adiponectin is made. DHA can restore adipose
tissue, and adiponectin levels may return to normal levels. This mechanism
explains how DHA protects against insulin resistance, say the authors. Wang and colleagues 2006 systematic reviewed the literature of the effect
of dietary n-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid)
from fish compared with alpha-linolenic acid on cardiovascular disease
outcomes and adverse events.
The authors report that most cohort studies found that increased consumption of
n-3 from fish or fish-oil supplements, but not of alpha-linolenic acid, reduces
the rates of all-cause mortality, cardiac and sudden death, and possibly stroke.
The evidence for the benefits of fish oil is stronger in secondary- than in
primary-prevention settings. In a prospective cohort study Morris and colleagues examined whether intakes
of fish and the omega -3 fatty acids protect against age-related cognitive decline.
The results of the study were a 10% and 13% slower decline among persons who
consumed 1 fish meal per week and 2 or more fish meals per week,
respectively, compared with the cognitive decline of persons who consumed fish less than weekly.
The authors concluded that fish consumption may be associated with slower
cognitive decline with age. Further study is needed to determine whether fat
composition is the relevant dietary constituent, as there were little
evidence that the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were associated with cognitive change. The 2006 study "Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks" sponsored by
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Marine Fisheries
Service and the FDA, supports public health guidelines.
According to this study the contamination coming from seafood counts only for only 9 per cent of the PCBs in the diet. The rest come from meat and dairy.
According to this study, which was conducted by the US National Academies of
Science, Institutes of Medicine, the levels of dioxins and polychlorinated
biphenyls are low, and potential cardiovascular and other effects are
outweighed by potential benefits of fish intake.
The findings of the study is backed up by the results of the study of Dariush
Mozaffarian and Eric B. Rimm [222] Searching reports published through April
2006, Dariush Mozaffarian, and Eric B. Rimm found evidences that modest consumption of fish (eg, 1-2 servings/wk),
especially species higher in the n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), reduces risk of coronary death by 36% and
total mortality by 17% and may favourably affect other clinical outcomes.
Intake of 250 mg/d of EPA and DHA appears sufficient for primary prevention.
Women of childbearing age and nursing mothers should consume 2 seafood servings/wk, limiting intake of selected species.
A variety of seafood should be consumed; individuals with very high
consumption (>5 servings/wk) should limit intake of species highest in
mercury levels. Levels of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish are
low, and potential carcinogenic and other effects are outweighed by potential
benefits of fish intake.
the benefits of fish intake exceed the potential risks. For women of childbearing age, benefits of modest fish intake, excepting a few selected species, also outweigh risks. Reduce saturated fat (SF) (and -fatty acids) to reduce CVD risk. Replace SF
and trans-fatty acids with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and
monunsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs).
Identify food sources of different fats i.e. SF (and trans fats), mono and
poly. Promote consumption of at least 2 fish meals per week. Magnus Högström
and colleagues in a Sweden study known as the Northern Osteosporosis and
Obesity Study (NO2 Study) measured fatty acids in the serum phospholipids
fraction in healthy men and their association with bone mineral density and
bone accrual. They found that n-3 fatty acids, especially docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA, 22:6n-3), are positively associated with bone mineral accrual and with
peak bone mineral density in young men around the age of 16 to 22 years. In an
earlier study higher ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids was negatively associated
with bone build up in elderly men and women. [224]
Chaim Vanek and William Connor suggested that the healt benefit of n-3 fatty acids on bone health might result from affecting expression of the role of peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor gama (PPAR-gama). Overexpression of this protein is linked to lower bone mass, therefore eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and docosahexaenoic acid DHA may protect bone mass. The authors call for more research on this matter. [225]
The essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) comprise 2 main classes: n-6 and n-3 fatty acids.
The most common source of n-6 fatty acids is linoleic acid is found in vegetable oils. Arachidonic acid n-6 fatty acid, is obtained largely by synthesis from linoleic acid in the body.
The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are found in fish and fish oils. The beneficial health effects of these two n-3 fatty acids were first described in the Greenland Eskimos, who consumed a high-seafood diet and had low rates of coronary heart disease, asthma, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and multiple sclerosis. These positive health attributes of n-3 fatty acids include reduction of risc of cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis. [213]
Significant benefits of dietary supplementation with fish oils were found in several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases in humans, including rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, psoriasis, lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis and migraine headaches.
[226] Psoriasis is a disease of the skin showing sharply
defined red patches covered with silvery scales in the regions of the elbows
and knees, genitals, perianal region, in the scalp and rarely in the eyelids.
Treatment with preparations of Anacardium, Carica, Cassia, Thespesia, or
topical application of Dithranol (Cignolin or Anthralin) is used together with
sunlight, artificial UV light, steroids, coal tar, salicylic acid, and
synthetic Vitamin D analogues.
Psoriasis was considered to be an epidermal disease. Recently it was found that
drugs like cyclosporin which suppress the activity of T-cells (white blood
cells)and the immune system, reduced the severity of psoriasis. This underlines
the importance of T-cells in the etiology of the disease. [227]
Australian regulations for mercury in fish [228]
The Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code prescribes maximum level for
mercury of 1.0 mg mercury/kg for swordfish, southern bluefin tuna, barramundi,
ling, orange roughy, rays and shark. and a level of 0.5 mg/kg for all other
species of fish, crustacea and molluscs.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued two major reports on
mercury the Mercury Study Report to Congress (1997) and the Utility Hazardous
Air Pollutant Report to Congress (1998). In those reports, fossil-fuel power
plants, especially coal-fired utility boilers, were identified as the source
category that generates the greatest Hg emissions, releasing approximately 40
tons annually in the United States. [229]
The major pathway for human exposure to methylmercury is consumption of
contaminated fish. Dietary methylmercury is almost completely absorbed into
the blood and is distributed to all tissues including the brain; it also
readily passes through the placenta to the foetus and foetal brain.
Epidemics of mercury poisoning following high-dose exposures to methylmercury
in Japan and Iraq demonstrated that neurotoxicity is the health effect of
greatest concern, such as effects on the foetal nervous system, mental
retardation, cerebral palsy, deafness, blindness, and dysarthria in utero and
in sensory and motor impairment in adults.
The studies in the Seychelles Islands, New Zealand, and the Faroe Islands were
designed to evaluate childhood development and neurotoxicity in relation to
foetal exposures to methylmercury in fish-consuming populations. No adverse
effects were reported from the Seychelles Islands study, but children in the
Faroe Islands exhibited subtle developmental dose-related deficits at 7 years
of age. These effects include abnormalities in memory, attention, and
language. In the New Zealand prospective study, children at 4 and 6 years of
age exhibited deficiencies in a number of neuropsychological tests.
Other studies were conducted in the Amazon; Ecuador; French Guiana; Madeira;
Mancora, Peru; northern Quebec; and Germany. Effects of methylmercury on the
nervous system were reported in all but the Peruvian population.
The EPATissue Residue Criterion is 0.3 mg methylmercury/kg fish. This is the
concentration in fish tissue that should not be exceeded based on a total fish
and shellfish consumption-weighted rate of 0.0175 kg fish/day. The risks
posed by pollutants such a methylmercury, and polychlorinated biphenols (PCBs)
is outweighed by the benefits of fish consumption, like omega-3,
protein,mineral content, and essential vitamins such as vitamin D where a 150
g serve of fish will supply around 3 micrograms of vitamin D.
EPA is proposed to function by increasing blood flow in the body, to affect
hormones and the immune system, and is involved in the membrane of ion
channels in the brain, making it easier for them to change shape and transit
electrical signals.
Seafood is the most important source of human exposure to mercury which may
spread globally when released from environmental stores due to human activities or through natural processes. In form of methylmercury it accumulate in the
food chain where fish and marine mammals are the most prominent examples. Balshaw
and colleagues 2007 report mercury concentration in marine animal to be
one-million times that of the surrounding water body, exceeding 1 microg g(-1).
Other seafood, however, have mercury content which ranges from 0.1 to 0.2 microg
g(-1), usually below 0.5 microg g(-1). The primary source of human exposure to
environmental mercury is through seafood consumption. Kehrig and colleaugues 2008 assessed the mercury assimilation by a predator
fish (Cichla spp.) of three Amazon rivers (Negro, Madeira, Tapajós) and two
hydroelectric reservoirs (Balbina, Tucuruí). The authors found methylmercury
concentrations varying from 0.04 to 1.43microgg(-1) w.w., growing accordingly to
the fish body weight. The authors report that methylmercury concentrations was
highest in one of the two reservoirs and in Rio Tapajós. The researchers
associate this with gold mining and deforestation of these sites.
Dórea and Barbosa 2007 comparing mercury bioaccumulation in fish found that
herbivorous fish of the Amazon rivers Madiera and Rio Negro had lower
concentrations of mercury compared with predator fish. Mercury concentration of
herbivorous fish from both rivers were found not to differ (2 - 182 ngHg/g),
despite the difference of the mercury content of these rivers.
Predator fish, at the top of the food chain such as Hoplias malabaricus and
Cichla spp presented concentrations of 80 to 747 ngH/g. Predator fish from the
river Madeira showed higher mercury concentrations than those of the Rio Negro.
The authors stress that the Rio Madeira has been greatly impacted by agriculture,
alluvial gold extraction, and a hydroelectric reservoir, whereas the Rio Negro is
much less affected by these activities. Jewett and Duffy 2007 reviewed data of methylmercury concentrations in fish. It
is the most toxic form of mercury. The authors found that most fish had muscle
Hg concentrations of smaller or =1 mg kg(-1) (wet wt.), which is within the
USFDA's Action Level and Alaska's guideline for safe concentrations of MeHg in fish.
Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) was found to have less than or equal to 0.1 mg
kg(-1)) Hg concentrations. Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) has a
mercury content less than 0.3 mg kg(-1) Hg. The authors stress, however, that
Northern pike (Esox lucius), a predator fish, has the highest Hg values, which
often exceedes guidelines for food consumption.
Campbell and colleagues 2003 found total mercury concentrations in fish of the
Victoria Lake usually below permissible World Health Organization (WHO)
concentrations. However, Nile perch was found to have up to 200 ng/g
concentrations of total mercury, but is not being considered relevant because
this fish is rarely caught.
The total mercury concentrations of water were below Canadian drinking water
guidelines but were higher then water of Great Lakes. Sediment and soil total mercury
concentration are comparable to those in northern latitudes and lower than data
of the Amazon basin. It is believed that important total mercury sources of the
region are biomass burning and soil erosion, whereas gold mining in Tanzania is
of less concern.
The authors recommends regular monitoring and risk assessment in the catchments of Lake Victoria Still to insure human safety and protect the nature of the Lake. A diet
high in ocean fish poses risk of premature birth. [235]
A study leaded by Fei Xuein and published in 2006, reinforced previous
findings suggesting that fish consumption is a major source of mercury
exposure for pregnant women. The greatest fish source for mercury exposure
appeared to be canned fish, both because it was consumed more and, per meal,
it was among the fish categories associated with the highest levels of mercury
in maternal hair. The observed relationship between elevated mercury levels
and increased risk of very preterm delivery is a new finding and requires
caution in interpretation.
Major strengths of the present study include the large number of pregnant
women participating, the prospective design, and the use of hair as an index
of methylmercury exposure. Hair levels of total mercury represent a longer
window of exposure than those of blood levels. Mercury levels in hair ranged
from 0.01 to 2.50 ppm (mean = 0.29 ppm, median = 0.23 ppm). The study is the
first to report an association between delivery at less than 35 weeks'
gestation and maternal hair mercury levels at or above 0.55 ppm. Philip W. Davidson and colleagues in a ten-year study of over 700 children in
the Seychelles Islands found that the mean maternal hair total mercury level
was 6.8 ppm and the mean child hair total mercury level at age 66 months was
6.5 ppm. No adverse outcomes at 66 months were associated with either prenatal
or postnatal MeHg exposure. The authors concluded that consumption of a diet
high in ocean fish appears to pose no threat to developmental outcomes through
66 months of age. The Seychelles Islands study is significant as the studied
population eats 12 fish meals a week, There is no home made mercury pollution.
Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3), one of the main structural lipids in the
mammalian brain, plays crucial roles in the development and function of brain neurons.
The function of DHA in neurogenesis and learning was examined in a study
conducted by Kawakita, Hashimoto and Shido Ohese. The researchers
demonstrated that docosahexaenoic acid effectively promotes neurogenesis both
in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that it has the new property of modulating
hippocampal functionregulated by neurogenesis. Maintaining brain DHA
concentrations may be an important part of prevention of neurodegeneration with ageing. According to Pepe and McLennan fish oil modifies cardiac
membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition to confer increased efficiency of
oxygen utilization and antiarrhythmic effects. Studying the effect on rats
the researchers found that fish oil rich in EPA and DHA. at a dose as low as
3% of total fat dietary supplement effectively reversed the high oxygen
requirements, reduced the coronary release of creatine kinase and reduced the
pro-arrhythmic effects of a continued consumption of (9%) saturated fatty
acids-rich diet in rats.
The studies on omega-3 fatty acids started with Dr. Jörn Dyerberg Hans Olaf
Bang and Aase Brondum Nielsen studying the blood lipids of the Inuit Eskimos
of the north-west coast of Greenland in 1970. Despite their high fat diet the
Inuits had a low rate of 5,3 per cent from cardiovascular disease, compared
with 40 per cent found in USA. The researcher s found low blood lipids levels
and high levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) acid and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA) in the Inuit blood serum. [239] [240]
EPA and DHA ratio of 3:2 is indicated, but not essential because the fatty
acids can be interconverted by the body.
Overfishing the oceans will limit the resources of omega fatty acids from
fish. Algae culture and genetic engineering of plants may overcome the
shortage of EPA and DHA.
Improvements in blood lipid levels, a reduced tendency of thrombosis, blood
pressure and heart rate improvements, and improved vascular function. Survivors of myocardial infarction fatty fish (300 g/week, or 0.35g n-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids daily) reduced overall mortality by 29% and
mortality from coronary heart disease by a third. A reduced intake of
saturated fat with a proportional increased intake of polyunsaturated fat and
a high fibre diet were ineffective. [241]
Alice H Lichtenstein in a research paper
summarizes the actual dietary recommendations as follows:
Different types of dietary protein or individual amino acids have little
effect on lipoprotein patterns. Saturated fatty acids increase LDL and HDL
cholesterol, whereas trans fatty acids increase LDL but not HDL cholesterol.
Unsaturated fatty acids decrease LDL and HDL cholesterol, polyunsaturated more
so than monounsaturated.
Dietary carbohydrate tends to increase plasma triglyceride when it displaces
fat, accompanied by a decrease in HDL cholesterol concentrations.
Short-term data favour substituting protein and fat for carbohydrate, whereas
long-term data have failed to show a benefit for weight loss. During an active
weight loss period low-carbohydrate diets more favourably affect triglyceride
and HDL and less favourably affect LDL cholesterol concentrations. The author
calls for more research on macronutrients.
Each state sets its own criteria and decides which bodies of water to monitor.
Fish advisories are voluntary state recommendations and are not governed by
federal regulations.
Frequently, when a fish advisory is issued it is because of pollutants that
have lingered in the environment for long periods, sometimes decades, even
though they are no longer used or their use has been significantly curtailed.
These pollutants include PCB's, chlordane, DDT, mercury and dioxin.
EPA has made considerable progress toward reducing the occurrence of these
contaminants in the environment: EPA issued first-ever regulations to control
mercury emissions from the power sector by 70 percent, the Clean Air Mercury
Rule. Production of PCBs for use ceased in 1977; chlordane was banned in 1988;
DDT was banned in 1972; and known and quantifiable industrial emissions of
dioxin in the United States are estimated to have been reduced by
approximately 90 percent from 1987 levels.
FDA recommends that consumers eat a balanced diet, choosing a variety of foods
including fruits and vegetables, foods that are low in trans fat and saturated
fat, as well as foods rich in high fibre grains and nutrients. Fish and
shellfish can be an important part of this diet.
The World Health Organization's guidelines maintain that the lowest level that
could possibly be harmful to humans is 5 parts per million (ppm).This level is
based on scientific results from the 1960s that placed the level at which risk
begins at 50 ppm for most people; WHO then applied a safety factor of 10,
deciding that a level of 5 or less is safe for even the most vulnerable populations.
EPA has recommended that a person ingest no more than 30 micrograms of mercury per day. Based on estimates of U.S. fish consumption, FDA recommended that only commercial fish with less than 1 ppm of mercury be sold. Later on the EPA recommended to Congress that the tolerable daily intake of mercury be dropped to just one-fifth the current allowable level, to about 6 micrograms per day.
The FDA supports statements that it is safe to eat fish and shellfish twice a
week and that one should always eat a variety of species.
Morrissey stresses that pregnant women should stick with current FDA
recommendations of about 12 ounces (340 grams) per week. Do not eat shark,
swordfish, King Mackerel, Tilefish. The rest of the population should be
eating fish four to seven times per week.
Recent US FDA data of mercury levels in fish and shellfish are
available at: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.htmland Mercury Concentrations in Fish: FDA Monitoring Program (1990-2004)
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/seamehg2.html
EPA and FDA advice not eat: Shark, Swordfish, King Mackerel, Tilefish. They contain high levels of mercury.
EPA and FDA recommend to eat up to 12 ounces (2 average meals) a week of a variety of fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury. Five of the most commonly eaten fish that are low in mercury are shrimp, canned light tuna, salmon, pollock, and catfish.
EPA and FDA says to be carefully with albacore ("white") tuna which has more mercury than canned light tuna. No more than 6 ounces (one average meal) of albacore tuna fish from local lakes, rivers, and coastal areas. per week should be eaten and no other fish during that week.
Recommendation of the Environmental Working Group (EWG) and the U.S. Public Interest Research Group (U.S. PIRG) published in Brain Food: What Women Should Know About Mercury Contamination of Fish:
- Pregnant women, nursing mothers and all women of childbearing age,
should not eat tuna steaks, sea bass, oysters from the Gulf Coast, marlin,
halibut, pike, walleye, white croaker, and largemouth bass. These are in
addition to FDA's recommendation to entirely avoid shark, swordfish, king
mackerel and tilefish.
- These women should eat no more than one meal per month combined of
canned tuna, mahi-mahi, blue mussel, Eastern oyster, cod, pollock, salmon from
the Great Lakes, blue crab from the Gulf of Mexico, wild channel catfish and lake whitefish.
- The following fish are safer choices for avoiding mercury exposure:
farmed trout or catfish, shrimp, fish sticks, flounder, wild Pacific salmon,
croaker, haddock, and blue crab from the mid-Atlantic.
Jane M. Hightower and Dan Moore tested mercury levels
in blood and hair of frequent fish eaters. They found mercury levels ranging from 2.0 to 89.5 µg/L
for the 89 subjects. The mean for 66 women was 15 µg/L, and for 23 men was 13
µg/L.
- (Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and the National Academy of
Sciences recommend keeping the whole blood mercury level < 5.0 µg/L or
the hair level < 1.0 µg/g . This corresponds to a reference dose (RfD) of 0.1 g/kg body weight per day.)
The authors concluded that high blood levels of mercury could be reduced by
abstaining from eating fish for more than 21 weeks. Mercury levels in tested
women averaged in this study 10 times the levels recommended by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency and the National Academy of Sciences. Levels
in men were close behind, while some of the children tested were found to have
levels 40 times those recommended. Nearly 90% of those tested were above the recommended levels.
Concern over mercury contamination has led government agencies to warn
consumers not to eat bass, trout and other sport fish caught in over a
thousand lakes and streams across 40 U.S. states.
Coal-burning power plants are the single largest source of mercury pollution,
and the only major source the government does not regulate. Mercury is an
extremely volatile metal that can be transported great distances after spewed
into the atmosphere. Once it reaches an aquatic environment, mercury is
transformed into methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin, which accumulates in top
predator fish and the people and wildlife who eat them. When ingested by
pregnant women, methylmercury readily crosses placenta and targets the
developing brain and central nervous system. Even relative tiny amounts can
produce serious developmental delays in walking, talking hearing and writing.
Infants can also be exposed to high levels of methylmercury during breastfeeding.
Mercury emissions from the power sector was reduced by 70 percent, following
the EPA Clean Air Mercury Rule of 2005. [249]
Most of the unsaturated fatty acids in nature have a cis configuration. The trans configuration results mainly during chemical hydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
In February 1995 the first part of the Euromic-Study
was published in The Lancet. This part of the study was mainly concerned
with trans fatty acids and diseases of the coronary vessels. The second part of the study was related to intake of TFA and cancer.
Approximately 2 to 3% of the fat of the milk and derivates have a cis configuration being elaidinic acid ( C18:1 trans)
responsible for most of the trans fatty acids of milk.
In some cases the amount of trans fatty acids in milk and derivates can be as high as 5%.
During a conference of the European Dairy Association (EDA) on 12th February
2008 in Brussels the speakers concluded that there is no scientific evidence
on negative health effects from TFA of natural origin found in dairy and ruminant meat. EDA therefore stated that dairy TFA should not be taken into consideration for labelling or nutrient profiling for claims. The association stresses that consumption of dairy products should rather be promoted for their significant contribution to the nutrient supply such as high quality protein and several key minerals and vitamins.
EDA underlines in a position paper that science indicates that:
- There are compositional and physiological differences between ruminant TFA and industrially produced TFA from vegetable origin.
- Scientific literature showing negative health implications of TFA is based on data dealing with industrially produced TFA.
- Data looking into the health effects of ruminant TFA have not shown any negative effects.
- Intake of ruminant TFA from dairy products has no significant nutritional relevance in relation to contribution to total energy intake and overall dietary consumption.
Therefore, EDA is of the opinion that:
- Ruminant TFA are different from industrially produced TFA.
- Care should be taken to deliver the right message to the consumer.
- Dairy TFA should not be considered for nutrient profiling or labelling.
- Dairy fits into a healthy diet. [251]
The International Federation of Margarine Association (IFMA)
and the IMACE (Association of Margarine Industry of the EC Countries)indexAssociation of the Margarine Industry of the EC Countries (IMACE) recommended to lower the amount of TFA (Trans Fatty Acids) in margarine to a maximum of 5% of fat.
Margarine to be used as spread or cooking should have less than
1%.[252]
The trans fatty acids can be reduced during refining by reducing
the temperature of the process. This however means a longer time the oil or fat has to spend in the system an therefore higher operation costs. The increased costs
should be accepted in change of a healthy product.
The deodorization of vegetable oils during refining using temperatures over 230° results more than 3% of trans fatty acids. Using temperatures
under 230° a maximum of 0,5% trans fatty acids are formed. This can be tolerated.
A real great amount of trans fatty acids are formed by partial hydrogenation of
soy oil.
A melting point of 36 to 37° of soya oil very commonly used
in the production of margarine as well as deep frying fat and products for bakery results in up to 50% of trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids are
therefore hidden in cakes, cookies, creams and margarine and all kind of fried product.
In USA partially hydrogenated oil is used almost everywhere. The trans fatty acids represents therefore a great menace to health because
they act as saturated fatty acids and may cause arteriosclerosis.
Trans fatty acids can be avoided during industrial processing of oil using
entirely hydrogenated oil.
If all double and triple bindings of the molecule of the fatty acids are
saturated the trans stereoisometric configuration ceases to exist and there is
no negative physiological activity left.
To obtain the same consistence of partially hydrogenated oil it is
necessary to add more liquid oil and esterified the whole
compound. This implies in higher production cost. All efforts to get healthy products should
however be made, including the acceptance of a small increase of price of
the final product in order to get margarine, fats, creams and bakery products
having less than 5% of their fatty acids in trans configuration.
Micha and colleagues 2010 looked at food sources of individual plasma
phospholipid trans fatty acid isomers which are known to increases the risk
of coronary artery disease.
TFAS were associated with foods made with partially hydrogenated vegetable
oils. The authors found TFAS and their isomers in biscuits, chips and/or
popcorn, fried foods. Bakery foods were associated with t-18:2 isomers,animal
foods, including red measts and butter and high-fat dairy with t-16:1n-7,
Margarine was associated with t-16:1n-9 isomers.
The authors stress the importance to consider the isomer forms of trans fatty
acids in studies and their different food sources. Isomers of trans fatty acids
differ in their health effects.
According to Jorge Chavarro and colleagues 2008 blood levels of trans isomers
of oleic and linoleic acids are associated with an increased risk of
non-aggressive prostate tumours. Trans fatty acids are also known to raise
serum levels of LDL-cholesterol, reduce levels of HDL-cholesterol, can promote can cause endothelial dysfunction, and influence other risk
factors for cardiovascular diseases.
This study backs food scientists and heath professionals and NGOs like CSPI
which call for a worldwide ban of trans-fatty acids so as already in force in
Europe. Partial hydration of edible oil can be avoided using fractions of
palmoil. U.S., however has great plantations of soy, therefore the oil
industry does not import palmoil which is more expensive. Deep-frying oil and
margarine are still high on unhealthy trans-fatty acids.
Marie-Pierre St-Onge and colleagues 2007 in a study found that replacing low-fat and high-fat snacks with snacks rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and low in saturated and trans fatty acids improves cardiovascular health.
The authors found in their study that the reduction of LDL- and total cholesterol concentrations were greater with the low-fat and the high-PUFA diets than with the high-fat diet The high-PUFA diet tended to reduce triacylglycerol concentrations, and this change was greater than that with the low-fat and high-fat diets. In addition the PUFA diet was the only one that tended to reduce triacylglyerol concentrations. However this that low fat diets may lead to reduction in high density lipoprotein (HDL /good cholesterol), and increase triacylglycerol concentrations. Some high fat foods such as nuts and avocados are therefore considered as healthy.
The authors concluded that snack type affects cardiovascular health. Consuming snack chips rich in PUFA and low in saturated or trans fatty acids instead of high-saturated fatty acid and trans fatty acid or low-fat snacks leads to improvements in lipid profiles concordant with reductions in cardiovascular disease risk.
According to the authors the consumption of snacks above balanced meals should not be promoted as healthy, but this research adds to the evidences that snacks, fast food and restaurant meals should be reformulated to reduce unhealthy trans fatty acids and to increase polyunsaturated fatty acids. Organisations like the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) are working hard on this issue.
Reviewing studies related to the effects of saturated fats on heart health,
Micha and Mozzafarian 2010 found that replacing saturated fatty acids (SFA)
with polyunsaturated fat modestly lowers coronary heart disease risk.
Replacing SFA with carbohydrate has no benefit and replacing SFA with
monounsaturated fat has uncertain effects. Results of studies found mixed and
unclear effects of SFA on vascular function, insulin resistance, diabetes, and
stroke.
The authors highlight the need of more studies, and warns from public health
programs on reducing SFA consumption without considering the replacement
nutrient or other food-based risk factors for heart diseases.
Mozaffarian, Micha and Wallace 2010 report that studies recommend to reduced
saturated fat (SFA) consumption to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease
(CHD), and some even recommend to lower or limit polyunsaturated fat (PUFA)
consumption.
The authors reviewing studies found that PUFAS consumption of 14.9% energy
presented a CHD risk reduction of 10%, compared with groups consuming 5.0%
PUFAS. The overall pooled risk reduction was 19%, corresponding to 10%
reduced CHD risk for each 5% energy of increased PUFAS.
The authors concluded that polyunsaturated fatty acids should therefore be used
as replacement of saturated fats and PUFAS should not be reduced as they proved
to reduce coronary heart disease.
Fats and margarine for bakery must have special stability, structure and
melting point. Therefore special hydrogenated oils and fats are needed.
| Palm oil, hydrogenated melting point 45/46° |
40% |
| Soybean oil, hydrogenated melting point 36/38° |
35% |
| Rapeseed oil, liquid melting point 5° |
25% |
This fat blend has a content of trans-fatty acids of 20 to 25%.
Melting points of fats found in nature
Coconut fat melting point 24-28°
Palm oil melting point 37-39°
Palmkernel oil melting point 26-30°
These melting points are to low for the production of pastry margarine.
To avoid hydrogenated oils and fats for bakery it is possible to fractionate fats leaving it at specific temperature to permit the hard components (stearin) to crystallize. Filtration separates the low melting components (olein).
Industry still uses hydration instead of fractionated fats because of the the higher prices of fractionated fats. For the sake of health the higher price should be accepted by the consumer in order to get healthy food.
Bakery products bear a lot of hidden
fats and are a great source of trans fatty acids with arteriosclerotic and carcinogenic activity. The researcher Gerhard Jahreis from the
university of Jena, Germany, analysing more than 800 foods, found up to 20
percent to have trans fatty acids varying from low to very high. He calls for
clear labelling of trans fatty acids on foods. Denmark stiff regulations on
trans fatty acids give a limit of maximal 2 percent. Germany does not have
any such binding limits on foods.
Jahreis found that meanwhile tube margarine had low trans levels,backers
margarine, especially margarine for puff pastry, used in croissants, however,
had extreme high content of trans fatty acids. He stresses that other foods
like microwave-popcorn and waffles also vary strongly in the level of the
coronary diseases risking fatty acids. Feeding on snacks, like cookies, chips
and others, the daily intake of trans fats may easily reach of 10g, where 2 g
are considered as safe. Madeira cake is a sponge cake with a firm yet light texture and is
traditionally flavoured with lemon. The Madeira Cake is sometimes mistakenly
thought to originate from the Madeira Islands; however, that is not the case
as it was instead named after the wine, popular in England at the time.
[260]
It is made with equal parts of butter, sugar, plain flour, grated zest of
orange and lemon, lemon juice, baking powder and candied peel.
The industry replaces butter with margarine and uses emulsifiers such as mono
and diglycerides to replace most of the eggs. Butyric acid gives the butter
aroma and riboflavin gives the egg yolk colouring.
Paraskevopoulou and colleagues 2010, trying to improve healthiness of this
formulation, replaced some of the margarine with extra virgin olive oil. This
supposedly reduces trans fatty acids of margarine used in the formulation. The
authors report that olive oil in the formulation increased batter density and
cake volume while decreased the weight loss during baking. The cake prepared with
this olive oil/margarine mixture was highly appreciated by the consumers.
[259] High consumption of trans fat has been associated
with high oxidative stress in humans, which could increase the risk of the development or
acceleration of several diseases, such as atherosclerosis, cancer, and type 2
diabetes.
Jahreis and colleagues monitored several urinary and blood biomarkers of
oxidative stress induced by a diet of 6g/day of trans fatty acids: high concentration of
urinary 8-iso-PGF2alfa were found. The concentrations
of 15-keto-dihydro-PGF2alfa was not affected by the diet. measured as urinary
7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2'-deoxy-guanosine was not affected by the diet.
The authors conclude that prolonged diet of >5.0 g/d of trans fats could be
relevant to the development of disease, as seen on an increase in urinary
8-iso-PG configuration being consumed about 30 to 40 gram a day make the total
blood cholesterol and LDL cholesterol to rise. HDL cholesterol is reduced by
trans fatty acids.
In countries with high consume of partially hardened soya oil like USA
there is an increase of heart diseases like heart infarct.
Industrial manufactured oils and fats cannot avoid completely trans fatty acids.
By using proper technologies the content of trans fatty acids however can be reduced to a tolerable amount of maximum 5%.
A daily intake of 4 to 6 gram of trans fatty acids are told to be harmless. All effort should be made by the industry to reduce the amount of trans fatty acids. [262]
In its November 1999 proposal, FDA proposed a definition for the nutrient content claim "trans fat free" and proposed limits on the amounts of trans fat wherever saturated fat limits are placed on nutrient content claims, health claims, or disclosure and disqualifying levels.
With regard to the specific definitions, FDA proposed that "trans fat free" and "saturated fat free" should be defined as less than 0.5 g trans fat and less than 0.5 g saturated fat per reference amount and per labelled serving; "low saturated fat" as 1 g or less of saturated fat and less than 0.5 g of trans fat per reference amount and not more than 15 percent of calories from saturated fat and trans fat combined; "reduced saturated fat" as at least 25 percent less saturated fat and at least 25 percent less saturated fat and trans fat combined; "lean" as 4.5 g or less of saturated fat and trans fat combined; and "extra lean" as less than 2 g of saturated fat and trans fat combined. In addition, cholesterol claims were allowed only on foods containing 2 g or less of saturated fat and trans fat combined, and disqualifying and disclosure levels were set at 4 g or less of saturated fat and trans fat combined. FDA did not propose to define "low trans fat."
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) amended its regulations on nutrition labelling to require that trans fatty acids be declared in the nutrition label of conventional foods and dietary supplements on a separate line immediately under the line for the declaration of saturated fatty acids.
FDA is revised Sec. 101.9(c) by adding paragraph Sec. 101.9(c)(2)(ii) to require the quantitative declaration of trans fat in the Nutrition Facts panel. This new paragraph requires the listing of trans fat on a separate line under the statement for saturated fat. As is the case for all subcomponents of total fat, it is to be indented and separated by a hairline, with the amount expressed as grams per serving to the nearest 0.5 g increment below 5 g and to the nearest gram increment above 5 g. If the serving contains less than 0.5 g, the content must be expressed as 0, except when the statement "Not a significant source of trans fat" is used. In addition, the agency is clarifying that the word "trans" may be italicized to indicate its Latin origin.
Section 101.9(c) requires that information on mandatory nutrients, such as saturated fat and trans fat, be included in all nutrition labelling unless otherwise excepted from such labelling as provided for in specified paragraphs.
Special provisions within Sec. 101.9(c) allow for shortened formats that provide manufacturers flexibility to omit noncore nutrients (i.e., mandatory nutrients other than calories, total fat, sodium, total carbohydrate, and protein) that are present in insignificant amounts from the list of nutrients and group them in a summary statement at the bottom of the label that states -Not a significant source of-(see 58 FR 2079 at 2083, Comment 8, January 6, 1993). These special provisions are found in Sec. 101.9(c)(1)(ii) for calories from fat, Sec. 101.9(c)(2)(i) for saturated fat, Sec. 101.9(c)(3) for cholesterol, Sec. 101.9(c)(6)(i) for dietary fibre, Sec. 101.9(c)(6)(ii) for sugars, and Sec. 101.9(c)(8)(iii) for vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, or iron. For consistency with the labelling scheme for these other noncore mandatory nutrients, new Sec. 101.9(c)(2)(ii) provides that if the trans fat content is not required and, as a result, not declared, the statement -Not a significant source of trans fat- must be placed at the bottom of the table of nutrient values.
Physiology of saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids rise the blood level of LDL cholesterol.
Claim to lower risk of heart disease with soy products
[263]
U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved to label foods containing at least 6,25 grams of soy protein per serving touting a link between eating soy and lower risk of heart disease.
6,25 grams of soy proteins are one-fourth of the 25 grams of soy protein daily which are supposed to be needed to show a significant cholesterol-lowering effect.
The claim was requested by Protein Technologies International, a subsidiary of DuPont Co, which is a manufacturer of isolated soybean protein.
Foods which may be qualified for this claim are soy beverages, tofu, soy-based meat alternatives and some baked goods.
Tofu found to be a risk of brain decay in elderely persons [264]
Cell culture studies
suggest that phytoestrogens, abundant in soy products such as tempe and tofu,
could protect against cognitive decline. However, the Honolulu Asia Aging
Study reported an increased risk for loss of memory and dementia with high
tofu intake. [265]
Phytoestrogens may protect the brains of younger and middle-aged people from
damage, however, increase the risk of dementia in old persons. [266]
Eef Hogervorst and colleagues 2008 found that high tofu consumption was
associated with worse memory while high tempe consumption (a fermented whole
soybean product) was independently related to better memory, particularly in
participants over 68 years of age. Fruit consumption also had an independent
positive association.
The authors say that tofu is rich in phytoestrogens which tended to promote
unhealthy growth among cells in the ageing brain. High doses of estrogens may
release free radicals damaging nerve cells. It is also possible that toxic
effects of formaldehyde which is sometimes used in Indonesia as a
preservative, might have influenced the results of the Honolulu Study. Hogervorst, however, stresses that moderated consume of tofu does not pose
heath risks.
According to the authors tempe contains high levels of phytoestrogens, however,
it also presents high folate levels which may exert protective effects. Vitamin
B9 from tempe is responsible for brain protection of old persons.
Cope, Erdman and Allison reviewed studies related to weight reduction induced
by soy protein, They concluded that the weight loss was equivalent when using
soy protein, dairy milk meal replacements, beef or pork at equal calorie levels.
Suggestion were found that soy protein may decrease short-term appetite and
calorie intake. There were limited data of some evidence of soy isoflavones to improve the blood glucose and insuline levels, stopping fat tissue built
up and enhancing fat breakdown. The cholesterol-lowering benefits of soy, and
reduction of bone loss in women was also supported by the review.
The authors concluded that soy foods are as good as other protein sources for
promoting weight loss and there is a suggestive body of evidence that soyfoods
may confer additional benefits, but results must be carefully interpreted and
additional evidence is needed before making firm conclusions concerning
soyfoods and weight loss.
Shin Joung Rho and colleagues 2007 found that a diet of black soy bean
peptide (Rhynchosia volubilis Lour.) given to mice reduced total cholesterol
concentration and low-denslipoprotein/high-density lipoprotein ratio in
serum, lowered the level of hepatic triglycerides, and excretion of faeces was
higher compared with a casein diet.
The authors concluded that black soy peptide can be a potent nutraceutical
component for anti-obesity and hypolipidaemic benefits.
Omega-3 fatty acids claims
The major source of omega-3 fatty acids is dietary intake of fish, fish oil, vegetable oils (principally canola and soybean), some nuts such as walnuts, and, dietary supplements. Alexandra J. Richardson and colleagues studied the
effect of dietary supplementation with omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). This disorder affects 5% of school-aged children. They present deficits in motor function associated with difficulties in learning, behaviour, and psychosocial adjustment.
The authors found significant improvements in reading, spelling, and behaviour, however, no effect of treatment on motor skills was apparent. They concluded that fatty acid supplementation may offer a safe efficacious treatment option for educational and behavioural problems among children with DCD.
The British company Dairy Crest relying on these results claimed that her omega enriched milk could enhance children's ability to concentrate and learn. The Britain's Advertising Standards Authority requested to stop this claim alleging that children would have to drink more than five litres of that milk every day to get the same amount of omega-3, being thus misleading. [269]
Britain's Joint Health Claims Initiative (JHCI) has approved a generic health claim that foods containing omega-3 benefit heart health, but not learning ability or concentration. The JHCI offers pre-market advice and a code of practice for the food industry, enforcers and consumers, to ensure that health claims on foods are both scientifically truthful and legally acceptable.[269]
UK's Food Standards Agency, concerning omega fatty acids said that there is insufficient quality evidence to reach firm conclusions on the effect of nutrition and dietary changes on learning, education or performance for all schoolchildren. The Agency maintains their advice to a diet lower in fat, sate and sugar but high in fruits, vegetables and complex carbohydrates, in addition to being physically active.
Omega-3 fatty acids and brain function [270]
Omega-3 fatty acids were proposed as having an important role in mental health, because up to 60% of the adult brain is composed of lipids (dry weight). Thirty five percent of the lipids are phospholipids comprised of unsaturated fatty acid such as docosahexaenoic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and arachidonic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) acids.
Disorders of mental health are becoming increasingly common in the US. It is estimated that in a given year, 22%, or one in five American adults, suffers from a diagnosable mental health disorder.[271] These disorders, including major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, account for four of the ten leading causes of disability in the US and other developed countries. Many people suffer from more than one mental disorder at a given time.[272]
Schachter, and colleagues co authors of the Oxford-Durham study write that overall, other than for the topics of schizophrenia and depression, few efficacy or safety studies were identified.
Only with respect to the supplemental treatment of schizophrenia is the evidence even somewhat suggestive of omega-3 fatty acids' potential as short-term intervention. Additional research might reveal the short-term or long-term therapeutic value of omega-3 fatty acids.
One study demonstrating a significant clinical effect related to 1 g/d E-EPA given over 12 weeks to 17 patients with depressive symptoms cannot be taken to support the view of the utility of this exposure as a supplemental treatment for depressive symptomatology or disorders.
Nothing can yet be concluded concerning the clinical utility of omega-3 fatty acids as supplemental treatment for any other psychiatric disorder or condition, or as a primary treatment for all psychiatric disorders or conditions examined in the review. Primary treatment studies were rare.
Much more research is needed before the possible utility of (foods or supplements containing) omega-3 fatty acids as primary prevention for psychiatric disorders or conditions can be ascertained. Studies of omega-3 fatty acids' primary protective potential in mental health could be "piggybacked" onto longitudinal studies of their impact on general health and development.
A report by the Associate Parliamentary Food and Health Forum, calls for more
research and funding into the role of essential fatty acids on the mind. The
forum does not recommend fatty acid fortification of foods, but recognizes
functional effects of certain essential fatty acids such as
Arachidonic Acid (AA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA), which form an important
part of the cellular structure of the brain and in maintaining its normal functions.
The forum stresses that deficiency of omega-3 EFAs is associated with certain
mental and behavioural disorders, such as ADHD, depression, dementia, dyspraxia,
greater impulsivity and aggressive behaviour, but the association is still only
partly understood.
Bernard Gesch of Natural Justice leads a study on the effect of nutritional diet
in young offenders' institutes on behaviour and mental health of prisoners. The
study is being funded by Welcome Trust
The parliamentary forum recommended that the UK's Committee on Nutrition to
look upon the optimum intake of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in
different stages of life, especially for pregnant women and children.
Deficiency of omega-3 can lead to a decreased ability to focus attention, which
is vital for sequencing letters and numbers, skilled movements, and detecting
facial and emotional expressions such as tone of voice and gestures.
The Durham Research 2004 studied the treatment effect on Conners'
Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Dramatic results were seen
within just 3 months of the trial. The children in the active group
supplementing with fatty acids saw significant improvements in reading,
spelling and behaviour, compared to the placebo group where no overall
improvement was made.
During the 3-6 month period when the placebo group crossed over to fatty acid
supplementation, considerable improvements were shown in the same areas, with
an average reading gain of 13.5 months and an average spelling gain at over 6 months.
The Sustain statement, however, points out that there is no published research
evidence showing that omega-3 can help to improve a normal child's behaviour or
school performance. The research done so far has been with children who have
specific learning and behavioural difficulties.
However, this has not prevented the supplement companies from benefiting
massively from association with the research.
An investigation of Sustain of fish-oil supplemented foods on market such as
omega-3 milk although it uses the omega-3 research as a marketing hook - neglects
to note that a child would need to drink two and a half litres of it to get the
same dose as used in trials. The same situation is present in products such as omega-3 enriched yoghurts, omega-3 eggs, omega-3 orange juice and omega-3
margarine. Sustain questions that they provide any real benefit.
According to the forum there is a high prevalence of depression, including
childhood depression and there is some evidence that omega-3 fatty acid
supplements may be helpful in the treatment of depression. The
inquiry,however, does not recommend universal fatty acid supplementation or
fortification until recommended daily intakes for adults and children have
been established.
Sustain has carried out work specifically on the issue of food and mental
health for over three years through its Food and Mental Health Project. The
principle of nutrient interaction states that even though every nutrient has a
specific function, no nutrient works alone, anything that it does, it does with
the assistance of a series of other processes, only made possible by the
presence of other nutrients. Sustain says it is deceptive to consider
nutrients as independent entities.
Whatever benefit omega-3 provides, it must be considered in the context of the
entire diet. Certain minerals are necessary for the successful incorporation
of omega-3 into the body and the presence of other fatty acids may interfere,
research or supplementation programmes that ignore this key factor risk
providing inaccurate perceptions of the effect of omega-3 rich foods on the body.
Sustain advocates two or three fish meals per week, and calls for policies
that help and encourage every individual to eat a balanced, healthy diet,
incorporating all of the necessary nutrients for brain health.
The UK's Food Standards Agency has published the results of a systematic review of the effect of nutrition, diet and dietary change on learning, education and performance of school children aged 4 - 18 years, covering already published studies.
The Government and those involved in education are committed to improving learning and raising standards in schools, as well as meeting the needs of individual pupils.
There is widespread belief that nutrition and diet may have a part to play in this process; however, there is a degree of uncertainty as to what interventions or supplements work.
Much of the available evidence is confusing and contradictory. In essence those charged with supporting and delivering education are seeking clear guidance for both individuals and groups of children, so as to be able to identify what probably works, what might work and what probably does not work.
The authors conclude that there is insufficient evidence to identify any effect of nutrition, diet and dietary change on learning, education or performance of school aged children from the developed world. Further research is required in settings of relevance to the UK and must be of high quality, representative of all populations, undertaken for longer durations and use universal standardised measures of educational attainment.
However, challenges in terms of interpreting the results of such studies within the context of confounders such as family and community context, poverty, disease and the rate of individual maturation and neurodevelopment will remain.
Whilst the importance of diet in educational attainment remains under investigation, the evidence for promotion of lower fat, salt and sugar diets, high in fruits, vegetables and complex carbohydrates, as well as promotion of physical activity remains unequivocal in terms of health outcomes for all school children.
Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation have been linked with behavioural improvements of children with learning difficulties, behavioural problems or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). According to the phospholipid hypothesis the decreased omega-3 fatty acid intake could be responsible for the disease.
According to the US Department of Health and Human Services 3% of children and 12% of adolescents may suffer from clinical depression.
Professor Haim Belmaker and colleagues treated for one month children aged between 6 and 12 with a combination of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 supplement commonly available at drugstores.
The researchers found significant depression reductions in the omega-3 treated group, concluding that Omega-3 fatty acids may have therapeutic benefits in childhood depression.
Cognitive function seems to benefit from DHA which is involved in the membrane of ion channels in the brain, making it easier for them to change shape and transit electrical signals. EPA may influence brain function directly increasing blood flow in the body, affecting hormones and the immune system.
Belmaker and colleagues concluded that omega-3 fatty acids may have therapeutic benefits in childhood depression.
Low levels of docosahexaenoic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, and elevated ratios of omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids are associated with major depression and, possibly, suicidal behaviour.
M. Elizabeth Sublette and colleagues found in a study that a low docosahexaenoic acid percentage and low omega-3 proportions of lipid profile predicted risk of suicidal behaviour among depressed patients over the 2-year period. If confirmed, this finding would have implications for the neurobiology of suicide and reduction of suicide risk.
In an overview of epidemiological and treatment studies concerning deficits in dietary-based omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, resulting mood disorders and their therapy with omega-3 fatty acids supplementation Gordon and colleaugues found that according to the different authors reviewed eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is likely to provide the greatest benefit. More studies studies clarifying the efficacy of omega-3 supplementation for unipolar and bipolar depressive disorders are needed.
The gene, called D4DR (fourth dopamine receptor gene) and located on the 11th chromosome, is said to be responsible for 10 percent of people's novelty-seeking or adventurous behaviour. The D4DR gene was discovered in the United States in 1991.
Its functioning is expressed in the limbic part of the brain - the section involved in emotions - and binds with high affinity to clozapine, a drug used to treat schizophrenia. Doctors at Soroka Hospital and the Beersheva Mental Health Center and at Jerusalem's Herzog Memorial-Ezrat Nashim Hospital, who tested 124 healthy Israelis, made the discovery. Doctors from the U.S. National Cancer Institute also pinpointed the gene on 300 people of various ethnic groups at the University of Maryland.
People who score low on the novelty-seeking test tend to be exploratory, fickle, excitable, quick tempered, and extravagant, while those who score high are more stoic, loyal, reflective, frugal, rigid, and even-tempered.
An U.S. team, which included Dr. Jonathan Benjamin of Soroka, backed up the Israeli findings. Nutritional habits have changed from whole grains, beans and other seeds, and seafood high in omega -3 fatty acids to prepared foods containing corn oil, safflower oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, soybean oil and red meat, which are high in omega-6.
EM Berrry says omega-6 fatty acids are essential for normal growth, development and health, and so extreme care is necessary before deciding that they are harmful. The relation n-6 : n-3 changed from 3:1 towards 1:20
n-6 function cannot be considered in isolation but needs to be seen as part of the complex of nutrient interactions with n-3 fatty acids (which compete for the same enzymatic pathways) and antioxidants.
Insulin sensitivity might be the common factor relating disease to fatty acid metabolism both within and between the fatty acid pathways. High linoleate to arachidonate concentrations have been observed in insulin resistance, diabetic complications and some tumours, but these are multifactorial processes that include many lifestyle determinants and it is therefore wrong to condemn only n-6 fatty acids in their etiology.
New research, leaded by Professor William Aronson found that changing the ration of omega-3 to omega-6 in the typical Western diet mightreduce prostate cancer tumor growth rates and prostate specific antigen PSA levels. PSA is a marker for the risk of prostate cancer.
Omega-3 fatty acids( eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) and the omega-6 acid ( arachidonic acid) compete to be converted by cyclooxgenase enzymes (COX-1 and COX-2) into prostaglandins, which can become either pro-inflammatory and increase tumour growth, or anti-inflammatory and reduce growth. Aronson and colleagues found that levels of the pro-inflammatory prostaglandin (PGE-2) were 83 per cent lower in tumours in the omega-3 group than in mice on the predominantly omega-6 fatty acid diet.
According to this study higher levels omega-3 fatty acids may lead to development of more anti-inflammatory prostaglandins. The authors conclude that eating a healthier ratio of these two types of fatty acids may make a difference in reducing prostate cancer growth. Estrogen exposure increases the risk for prostate cancer. Margel and Fleshner 2011 suggest that the estrogenic compounds of oral contraceptives are excreted in the urine and end thus in the environment and water resources. The drinking water supply and local food are thereby over long time a source of estrogen residues.
The authors used data of the International Agency for Research on Cancer of rates of prostate cancer in 2007, and data from the United Nations World Contraceptive Use. These data show that the use of contraceptives demonstrate that intrauterine devices, condoms and other vaginal barriers are not associated with an increased risk for prostate cancer. However, oral contraceptive use was associated with a significantly increased incidence of prostate cancer and death from prostate cancer.
The authors stressed that these findings are observational and do not indicate a cause-and-effect relation between oral contraceptive use and prostate cancer, however people should be aware of a a potential harmful effect of the use of estrogen-disruptive compounds. The authors will test estrogen levels in water supplies, and will verify if there is a difference in estrogen content cancerous prostate tissue and healthy prostate tissue.
The authors call for more research on the potential harmful effects of oral contraceptives and other endocrine-disruptive compounds in synergism with other biologic active compounds in the environment,
The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial leaded by Barbara Howard found that dietary changes like eating less fat and more vegetables has no effect on the risk of cardiovascular disease.
This study is inconsistent with earlier studies which associate dietary fat intake and a lowered risk of cardiovascular disease, focusing on wholegrain, fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids. The authors, however, find it possible that a diet specifically lower in saturated and trans fat combined with increased intakes of vegetables, fruits, and grains might have led to a decrease in cardiovascular disease risk.
According to Cheryl Anderson and Lawrence Appel The Women's Health Initiative study had not considered current dietary guidelines to cut CVD risk, such as less salt and more potassium, the DASH (Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension) diet, and weight loss. Current policies towards fruit, vegetables and wholegrain would probably be unaffected. The study, however, may indicate that saturated fat levels should be lowered from 10 per cent to seven per cent of total energy intake. The possibility that the effect might have been greater in men or if the diet had been initiated at younger ages cannot be ruled out. [287]
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) was introduced in the 1970s. Food industry, particularly the soft drink industry, uses fructose syrup in excess. Removing fructose from soft beverages could help to reduce obesity, as a possible mechanism is suggested which may explain the link between rising obesity and sweetened beverages.
Three important studies report that high fructose corn syrup is an important factor in the rising obesity epidemic:
According to Hella S. Jürgens and colleagues (2005), from the Department of Pharmacology, German Institute of Human Nutrition, Potsdam-Rehbruecke, exposure to fructose water increased adiposity, whereas increased fat mass after consumption of soft drinks or diet soft drinks did not reach statistical significance. Total intake of energy was unaltered, because mice proportionally reduced their caloric intake from chow. The researchers found that fructose also produced a hepatic lipid accumulation with a characteristic pericentral pattern.
Jürgens conclude that a high intake of fructose selectively enhances adipogenesis, possibly through a shift of substrate use to lipogenesis.
Swiss researcher Kim-Anne Le and colleagues report in December 2006 that moderate fructose supplementation over 4 weeks increases plasma triacylglycerol and glucose concentrations without causing ectopic lipid deposition or insulin resistance in healthy humans. [289]
In February 27, 2007 Juan Carlos Laguna and colleagues wrote that liquid fructose changes the metabolism of fat in the liver by impacting a specific nuclear receptor called PPAR-alpha, leading to a reduction in the liver's ability to degrade the sugar. According to the authors, this would partly explain the link between increased consumption of fructose and widening epidemics of obesity and metabolic syndrome. In their article the authors conclude that hypertriglyceridemia and the retention of fat in liver induced by fructose ingestion result from a reduction in the hepatic catabolism of fatty acids driven by a state of leptin resistance.
According to this research, the fructose increased fat synthesis in the liver and also acted on the PPAR-alpha receptor( which controls the oxidation of fatty acids) to reduce the degradation of the fructose, and reduces the activity of the hormone leptin which is engaged in the metabolism of faty acids in liver. [290]
Julie Palmer and colleagues 2008 found that the the risk of type 2 diabetes
mellitus increased by 24 percent in African American women, who consume at least
two soft drinks a day, compared to those who drank one product a month, and 33
percent with fruit drinks. Orange and grapefruit juices and diet soft drinks
were not linked to diabetes.
Fruit drinks and fruit flavoured soft drinks are increasingly being promoted as
healthy despite added sugar which increases obesity and diabetes risk, according
to the study of Palmer and colleagues. The researchers found that fruit drinks were associated with healthy behavioural patterns like physical activity, cereal
fibre intake, and eating a low-glycemic index diet, and soft drink consumption
with unhealthy behaviours.
The authors refer to the literature which indicates a positive association
between greater intakes of sugar sweetened beverages and weight gain and obesity
in both children and adults, because of their high content of calories and are
consumed as an addition to usual food intake.
The researchers claimed that the use of sweeteners such as high-fructose corn
syrup (HFCS)were likely to have a particularly strong impact on weight gain, due
in part to the possible affects it has on insulin secretion and leptin release.
Whereas the metabolic effect of natural glucose and fructose from orange and
grapefruit juice differt from that of HFCS.
The authors concluded that regular consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks
and fruit drinks is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus
in African American women.
According to Johnson and Perez-Pozo 2009 the average of U.S. consumption of
fructose is 50 to 70 grams, but some people are getting as much as 150 grams a
day. The data of the study performed by the researchers confirm the belief that
fructose raises blood pressure by increasing uric acid levels, but more
studies on this matter are necessary. Johnson stresses that ingesting a
certain amount of fructose, one can raise blood pressure to the level of
hypertension.
Mariana Morris and colleagues 2009 found that the timing as well as the amount
of fructose that's consumed affected blood pressure. The study was done on
mice. The mice that consumed fructose continuously or at night had an increase
in blood pressure, with a spike at night, when they were awake. Gain of body
weight was increased. Mice that consumed fructose in the daylight hours, the
blood Pressure was high during the day and low at night. This suggests that
the timing of fructose intake is important in cardiovascular diseases. This
study suggests that consuming junk foods and sweetened soft drinks at night
increases body weight and rises blood pressure. [293]
Although healthy levels exist in natural foods, such as in fruits, excessive
amounts can rise blood pressure and lead to heart diseases. The American Heart
Association says women should eat no more than 100 calories of added processed
sugar per day, or six teaspoons (25 grams), while most men should keep it to just
150 calories or nine teaspoons (37.5 grams). On average Americans consume 22
teaspoons (90 grams) or 355 calories of added sugar each day. [294]
According to a study of Miriam B. Vos and colleagues 2008, commented by George A. Bray, the intake of fructose has increased in the US diets. The
study of Vos and colleagues was part of the third National Health and
Examination Survey (NHANES III).
According to the authors fructose intake was estimated in 1977-1978 as 37
g/day (8% of total intake) and raise up to 54.7g/day (range, 38.4-72.8) and
accounted for 10.2% of total caloric intake in 2008, and less than 20% of
the fructose is consumed in natural form from fruits and vegetables. Fructose is not accompanied by comparable amounts of fibre or other nutrients
that promote healthy weight.
The author stress that fructose is found in sugar, high-fructose corn syrup
(HFCS), and fruits. Fruit juice and soft drinks have a higher concentration
of fructose as found in whole fruit. Fructose intake from sugar or
HFCS-sweetened beverages provides no other nutrients, whereas intake of fruit
containing fructose provides a variety of natural, beneficial nutrients. Soft
drink and fruit juice consumption has largely replaced milk intake, increasing
dietary sugar and reducing protein, calcium and vitamin. Fructose increases
caloric intake, increases levels of serum uric acid, heart disease risk and
gout in men.
The study also points out that total fructose intake in normal-weight and
overweight children was a significant predictor of smaller low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol particle size, which in turn has been linked to
an increased risk for cardiovascular disease.
To avert the negative effects of fructose the authors recommend to consume a
whole-foods diet consisting of fruits, vegetables, and healthy proteins and to
avoid foods with added sugars.
Bray and colleagues 2008 point to the fact that fructose from sugar or High
Fructose Corn Syrup-sweetened beverages are lean calories which lack other nutrients,
they lack other nutrients, such as fruits where sugar and fructose are
accompanied with other nutrients. Another problem cited by the authors is that sweet soft drinks are consumed by youngsters instead of milk creating a
shortage on calcium and vitamin D essential for bone building. The authors
also write that the body does not perceive calories in sweetened beverages in
the same way as it does with other foods and do not produce satiety as other
solid foods do, leading to an increased intake of calories.
[296]
Studies from Barry M. Popkin and George A. Bray suggested that high fructose
corn syrup (HFCS) was a cause of obesity, particularly in infants. Many food
manufacturers producers replace it with sugar, failing to meet the key problem
which is the high calories content of their products.
Popkin and colleagues 2004 report that by 2004, HFCS provided 17% of total
energy intake, whereas soft drinks and fruit drinks provided the most. The
authors stressed that sweetened tea and desserts also represented major
contributors of calories from added sugar. They concluded that intake of calories
from high fructose corn syrup and sugars should be examined, but also emphasize
that the trends in added caloric sweeteners should not be omitted in such
researches. Included are high caloric fruit juices, sodas and sport drinks
supplemented with calcium to look healthy and liquid yoghurts sweetened with
plenty of sugar [298].
Fulgoni III comments the annual American Society for Nutrition Public Information
Committee symposium for 2007 on High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) which presented
data indicating that HFCS is very similar, few metabolic differences to sucrose,
being about 55% fructose and 45% glucose. It was concluded that High Fructose
Corn Syrup does contribute to added sugars and calories. Weight reduction
strategies should focus on calories from carbohydrates from beverages and other
foods, regardless of High Fructose Corn Syrup content.
Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, including fruit drinks, sports drinks,
soda, and sweetened coffee or tea, is a significant source of dietary fructose
and is associated with higher serum uric acid levels and blood pressure in
adolescents aged 12 to 18 years Nguyen and colleagues in a study of 2009 found in
this group serum uric acid increased by 0.18 mg/dL and systolic blood pressure
z-score increased by 0.17 from the lowest to the highest category of
sugar-sweetened beverage consumption which may lead to adverse heath outcomes,
warn the authors.
White 2009 addressed misconceptions about high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). He
found that high-fructose corn syrup is not meaningfully different in composition
or metabolism from other fructose-glucose sweeteners like sucrose, honey, and
fruit juice concentrates. White concluded that the popular hypothesis that HFCS
is uniquely responsible for obesity is not supported.
Stanhope and Havel 2008 report that consumption of fructose-sweetened beverages
substantially increases postprandial triacylglycerol concentrations compared with
glucose-sweetened beverages. Apolipoprotein B concentrations were also increased
while consuming fructose, but not with glucose. It was found in this study that
beverages sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose increase
postprandial blood levels compared with fructose alone. The authors call for more
studies on increased consumption of fructose-sweetened beverages which come along
with obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes.
Melanson and colleagues 2008 assessed high-fructose corn syrup and excess
weight gain reported in some acute feeding studies. According to the authors
fructose is being suggested to be linked with insufficient secretion of
insulin and leptin and suppression of ghrelin compared with pure glucose,
however such differences are not apparent compared with sugar. Appetite and
energy intake do not differ also.
Intake reduction of both sweeteners must become the primary target in tackling
the obesity problem.
Mello, Pomeranz and Morgan 2007 report that most US states adopted laws that
regulate the availability of sugar-sweetened beverages in school settings.
Consumer and parent groups, as well as the beverage industry responded with
strong reactions. This shows how much work is needed to convince parents to
accept regulations which try to implement healthy nutrition patterns for youngsters.
The Food and Nutrition Board issued in 2007 a Nutrition Standards for Foods in
Schools. Leading the Way Toward Healthier Youth. The standards include
beverages, yogurts (including drinkable yogurt), puddings, soups, cheeses,
snack chips, energy bars, confectionery and similar foods [305].
The American Beverage Association & The Alliance for a Healthier Generation
beverage industry announced the adoption of the voluntary School Beverage
Guidelines, which call for the curtailment of sugar-sweetened beverage sales in
schools, aiming to avoid official regulations which might be more stringent than
their own guidelines [306].
Wang, Bleich and Gortmaker 2008 found that 55% to 70% of all sugar-sweetened
beverage calories were consumed in the home environment, and 7% to 15% occurred
in schools. Measures to restrict sugar-sweetened beverage sales in schools are
therefore insufficient. The authors stress that consumption increase in all ages,
varying between 10% to 15% of total calories from sugar-sweetened beverages and
100% fruit juice . The authors urge to develop awareness of pediatricians to
help children and parents to reduce excessive intake of calories and obesity.
Gortmaker and colleagues 2009 estimate that replacing all sugar-sweetened
beverages with water could result in an average reduction of 235 kcal/d. Light and colleagues in a study published in 2009 report that rats drinking
caloric sweetened solutions failed to completely compensate for liquid calories
ingested by reducing their consumption of solid food resulting in greater total
energy intake compared to water control. However, there was no significant
difference in total energy intake between the sucrose, fructose or high fructose
corn syrup. However, high fructose corn syrup induced greater final body
weights and fat mass compared to water or glucose groups which may be related to
a faster body weight gain due to high fructose corn syrup. The authors also
noted that rats drinking high fructose corn syrup presented a prolonged estrus.
Havel and colleagues assessed the effect of a diet containing 25% glucose- or
fructose-sweetened beverages for 10 weeks. They report that both groups gained
about 1.5 kg, and visceral fat was increased in the fructose group, but not
in the glucose group. Visceral fat is linked to an increased risk of both type
2 diabetes and heart disease. Also an increase of LDL-cholesterol levels was
found, and insulin sensitivity decreased compared with the glucose group. The
authors concluded that fructose promotes disorders of the lipid physiology,
increased risk of both type 2 diabetes and heart disease and increases
visceral fat in overweight persons.
Intake of fructose and glucose, particularly the High Fructose Corn Syrup HFCS
and sugar should be reduced. The consumer must read the list of ingredients.
HFCS is almost everywhere present such as fruit yoghurt. Get simple yoghurt and
mix it at home with your favourite fruits. Do not use sugar. You will learn to
appreciate natural flavour of food without over-sweetness or over-saltiness.
The Corn Refiners Association (CRA), claims in a release from April 6, 2006, that that HFCS is not the unique factor responsible for obesity. http://www.hfcsfacts.com/
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS), according to Kathleen J Melanson is similar to sugar in the production of leptin, insulin and ghrelin and regulation of the body's calorie control mechanisms. (Experimental Biology conference on April 1-5, 2006, San Francisco.)
Martine Perrigue et al compared the level of fullness (satiety) after consuming HFCS-, sucrose- and aspartame-sweetened beverages with milk and a no-beverage control. The study found that all four caloric beverages suppressed hunger ratings and increased satiety ratings relative to the no beverage control.
However, there were no significant differences in satiety profiles among the sucrose- and HFCS-sweetened beverages, diet cola, and 1% milk.
[312]
High-fructose corn syrup is being used to sweeten soda, fruit nectars, ice
tea, sport drinks, backed goods, and even fruit yoghurt. Its fabulous
popularity among manufacturers is based on the fact that it is supposed to be
more economical, sweeter and more easy to blend into beverages than table
sugar.
According to a study presented by Chi-Tang Ho and colleagues of Rutgers
University, carbonated sodas containing high-fructose corn syrup presented
high levels of reactive carbonyls which are blamed to increase the risk of
diabetes. These carbonyls are not found in table sugar whose fructose and
glucose components are "bound" and chemically stable.
The authors suggest to add tea extract to these products because the
epigallocatechin gallate of tea was found to reduce reactive carbonyls, or
replace the syrup with regular table sugar.
The study has not been published and the full methodology and data have not
been presented yet.
Lona Sandon from the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at
Dallas, said the Rutgers study is still inconclusive, but recommends that
kids get zero sugary drinks a day, particularly overweight or obese children.
Dr. Barbara B. Kahn, from Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston, says
Ho's study needs to be validated by other studies. Kahn recommends to avoid
most high-calorie beverages as part of a program to prevent obesity.
The consumer can avoid beverages and foods containing high-fructose corn syrup
looking for GLUCOSE-FRUCTOSE SYRUP in the ingredients list at the label. Watch
your fruit yoghurt as many fruit compositions used for the yoghurt are based on
glucose fructose syrup made from corn or wheat.
Elizabeth Parks and colleagues 2008 compared the formation of fat (lipogenesis)
following consumption of pure glucose, or combinations of glucose and fructose.
They found a surprising speed with which humans make body fat from fructose. Dr.
Parks explained that fructose, glucose and sucrose can be made into
triglycerides, a form of body fat; however, once the process of fat synthesis
from fructose has started, it's hard to slow it down.
The authors report that lipogenesis increased from 7.8 per cent for the glucose
beverage to 15.9 per cent after a 50:50 glucose/fructose beverage and 16.9 per
cent after a beverage containing 25:75 glucose/fructose, and blood triglyceride
levels were between 11 and 29 per cent higher after consumption of the 50:50 and
25:75 beverage, compared to the 100 per cent glucose drink.
Dr. Parks explained that sugar is either stored as glycogen, burnt for energy or
turn the glucose into triglycerides. Fructose bypasses the liver and floods the
metabolic pathways, that is why fructose very quickly gets made into fat in the
body.
The authors stress,however, that obesity and the rise of type-2 diabetes are not
caused by one ingredient alone. The sum of calories of fat, proteins and
carbohydrate is to high compared with the activity level of Western diet.
Karen L. Teff and colleagues, in a study from 2009, found that drinking fructose-sweetened beverages increased triglyceride levels up to 200 per cent in
obese people in comparison to glucose-sweetened beverages. Fructose
containing beverages were also associated with less insulin secretion and
blunted diurnal leptin profile. The increase of triglycerides was more
accentuated in persons with insulin resistance increasing therefore an adverse
metabolic profile. Increased levels of triglycerides are linked to heart
diseases and obesity.
The authors call for more studies on the effect of fructose and the link between
pure fructose and high fructose corn syrup which consists of consists of 55 per
cent fructose and 42 per cent glucose, according to the Corn Refiners
Association [316]
.
This study backs the theory that the body processes fructose in a different form
as it does with other sugars. The consume of sweet soft drinks and foods high in
fructose corn syrup and sugar, such as fruit yoghurt, candies and energy bars
should be reduced or completely avoided because of their content of fructose and
high calories. Changing once nutritional preferences to mineral water, or tap
water, and consuming fruits and vegetables the taste of natural products is
rediscovered.
Leptin is a hormone which plays a key role in regulating energy intake and
energy expenditure, including appetite and metabolism. Next to a biomarker for
body fat, serum leptin levels also reflect individual energy balance.
Although leptin is a circulating signal that reduces appetite, in general,
obese people have an unusually high circulating concentration of leptin. These
people are said to be resistant to the effects of leptin, in much the same way
that people with type 2 diabetes are resistant to the effects of insulin. The
high sustained concentrations of leptin from the enlarged adipos stores result
in leptin desensitization. The pathway of leptin control in obese people might
be flawed at some point so the body doesn't adequately receive the satiety
feeling subsequently to eating.
More research on how fructose acts on the pathway of leptin are needed for a
better understanding the causes of obesity.
Yoshida and colleagues found that sugar-sweetened drink consumption caused
fasting insulin to rise, but was not associated with fasting glucose.
Fruit juice consumption was inversely associated with fasting glucose. Fasting
insulin was not affected.
The authors conclude that in healthy adults, sugar-sweetened drink consumption
could be a factor of insulin resistance. The authors caution, however that too
much fruit juice can cause an excess of calories and sugar. They call for more
studies on this subject.
Rennie and Livingston (2007) in a systematic computerised literature search
determined the associations between dietary added sugar intake and micronutrient intake. Dietary added sugars are getting in headlines as they might compromise intakes of micronutrients. However, in this study, the authors found no clear evidence of micronutrient dilution such as vitamins or minerals, or a threshold for a quantitative amount of added sugar intake. The authors conclude, that there are insufficient data and inconsistency between studies which require further research to determine which food products high in added sugars might adversely affect micronutrient intakes by displacing other food items from the diet. According to Professor Dr. Dr. Andreas Hensel, President of the German BfR the classic strict diet with no sugar and instructions to keep an exact tally
of bread units (BE) for diabetics are not necessary.
New scientific findings reveal that, in case of diabetes, there is no need to
impose a strict control of sugar in the diet or to switch to foods with sugar
substitutes, for instance fructose. Instead, diabetics should follow the
nutrition recommendations for the population at large.
The Federal Institute for Risk Assessment BfR recommends the daily consumption
of fruit and vegetables because of their content of antioxidants and high
level of roughage. Special diabetic foods with sugar substitutes such as fructose, are not needed. There is no need for special guidelines for diabetic
foods. Extended, uniform nutrition labelling on packaged foods, instead, should make it easier for diabetics to make their selection.
The BfR stresses that diabetes is not just a "sugar disease". Besides normal
blood sugar levels, optimised blood fat levels, normal blood pressure and
normal body weight must be observed in the treatment of diabetes. They can
best be achieved by a diet that is rich in roughage and vitamins. Fruit,
vegetables, salad, pulses and wholemeal products should feature in the daily
diet of diabetics. Fatty sausage and cheese varieties, chocolate, cakes and
crisps should be avoided. Diabetics should preferably drink low fat dairy
products and use oil instead of butter for cooking. Their diet should be low
in table salt. Alcohol should be consumed in moderation, for instance one to
two glasses of wine a day, says the BfR.
Professor Hensel says that special foods presented and labelled as "suitable
for diabetics" are not necessary. This is particularly true as labelling fails
to fulfil its purpose. There are many other foods which are suitable for
diabetics but which are not labelled as such.
The German Diabetic Association DDG says that foods labelled as " suitable for
diabetics" or "diabetics-product" are superfluous and harmful. Such
labelling may induce diabetics to believe they may eat these foods unboundedly. Many of the are built on saturated fats which increase obesity
problems. [321] The German diet regulation from 2005, with an update in January
2008 rules, among others, foods for persons with glucose metabolic disorders
(Diabetics). Foods may be labelled as "Suitable for diabetics" when:
1 - Fat and alcohol level is not higher that traditional foods.
2 - Glucose,invertsugar, dissacharides, maltodextrin and glucose syrup is not
used, small amouts are are allowed when used in blends with sweeteners or as
carrier of other ingredients. On their place fructose and artificial
sweeteners are used.
The BfR calls for an extended, uniform nutrition labelling with not only of
calorific value, proteins, carbohydrates and fat but also of total sugar content,
saturated fatty acids, roughage, sodium and table salt on packaged foods would
make it easier for diabetics and all consumers to select suitable products.
The PREMIER study compared the effectiveness of advice of the Comprehensive
Intervention and the DASH Intervention. Both multicomponent lifestyle
interventions aimed to control blood pressure. Reduced sodium intake, increased physical activity, weight loss,
and moderate alcohol ingestion are associated with a modest reduction of both
systolic and diastolic blood pressure in with high normal and Stage 1
hypertension. The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) study found that a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy products, and decreased saturated fat, total fat, and cholesterol reduced both diastolic and systolic blood pressure in similar baseline blood pressure groups.
DASH-style diet is associated with a marked decrease in kidney
stone risk [324]
Foods very high in oxalate such as spinach and almonds are
generally avoided to reduce the risk of kidney stones. Taylor and colleagues 2009, analysing
the results of the DASH-diet and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study,
however, could not support the common practice of dietary oxalate restriction
in calcium stone formers if such advice results in lower intake of fruits,
vegetables, and whole grains.
The DASH diet is high in fruits and vegetables, moderate in low-fat dairy
products, and low in animal protein. According to the authors this diet is a
kidney stone prevention strategy. The authors found that consumption of fruits
and vegetables increases urinary citrate which inhibits calcium stone
formation, and a diet with normal to high calcium content but low in animal
protein and sodium reduces the risk of calcium oxalate stone by 51%.
The study was based on a DASH score, where high scores were given to high
consumption of fruits, vegetables, nuts and legumes, low-fat dairy products, and
whole grains, and low consumption of sodium, sweetened beverages, and red and
processed meats. High DASH scores resulted in higher intakes of calcium,
potassium, magnesium, oxalate, and vitamin C, and low sodium intakes. This was
associated with reduced risk of kidney stones even in participants with lower
calcium intake.
The PREMIER writing group, leaded by Apel wrote in 2003 that both behavioral interventions significantly reduced weight, improved fitness, and lowered sodium intake. The established plus DASH intervention also increased fruit, vegetable, and dairy intake. Individuals with above-optimal BP, including stage 1 hypertension, can make multiple lifestyle changes that lower BP and reduce their cardiovascular disease risk.
Both behavioral interventions significantly reduced weight, improved fitness, and lowered sodium intake. The established plus DASH intervention also increased fruit, vegetable, and dairy intake. Across the groups, gradients in blood pressure and hypertensive status were evident.
Jennifer A Nettleton and colleagues 2008 assessed the associations between
urinary albumin excretion and dietary patterns and intake of plant and animal
foods. Foods were grouped in plant food intake (fruit, fruit juice,
vegetables, nuts, legumes, whole grains and refined grains), animal food
intake (red meat, processed meat, poultry, fish, high-fat dairy, and low-fat
dairy), and nondairy animal food intake, and the urinary albumin-to-creatinine
ratio was determined.
The authors found that a high intake of low-fat dairy foods and a dietary
pattern rich in whole grains, fruit, and low-fat dairy foods were both
associated with lower urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio, a high ratio
indicates poor kidney function. Kidney malfunction may lead to coronary
vascular diseases. In contrast, collectively, nondairy animal food intake was
positively associated with urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio.
Low-fat dairy foods are also highlighted by the Dietary Approaches to Stop
Hypertension (DASH) intervention which found that a diet rich in fruits,
vegetables, low-fat dairy products, and decreased saturated fat, total fat,
and cholesterol reduced both diastolic and systolic blood pressure in similar
baseline blood pressure groups.
Low-fat dairy foods are also highlighted by the Dietary Approaches to Stop
Hypertension (DASH) intervention which found that a diet rich in fruits,
vegetables, low-fat dairy products, and decreased saturated fat, total fat, and
cholesterol reduced both diastolic and systolic blood pressure in similar
baseline blood pressure groups.
Jenny Ledikwe and colleagues 2007 found that participants of the PREMIER study maintained weight loss after dieting adhering to a low calorie, low energy density diet, even when large amounts of low calorie, low energy density foods were consumed. Both large and modest energy density reductions were associated with weight loss and improved diet quality.
The researchers found that the energy density of the diet was decisive. Participants on a low energy density diet reported the same weight loss as those on low calorie high physical activity diets. However, the low energy density group reported consuming the largest increase in the weight of food consumed as well as increased intakes of fruit, vegetables, fibre, vitamins and minerals. Even a modest reduction in energy density accomplished reduced body weight.
The authors therefore concluded that a reduction in dietary energy density was a healthy weight management strategy. Tiffany L. Cox and colleagues 2007 determined the role of physical activity and energy intake on weight maintenance among former EatRight Weight Management Program participants. The authors found that 80% of participants maintained their body weight and 20% had gained weight. Maintainers consumed 384 fewer kcal/d on average. Maintainers had a lower energy density dietary pattern (1.58 vs. 2.01 kcal/g,). There was no significant difference in physical activity min/d reported by maintainers and gainers. even for people who did not exercise regularly .Adopting a lower calorie, low energy density dietary pattern may reduce the amount of physical activity that is truly necessary for weight maintenance. This is a new hope for those who cannot maintain a certain level of their daily exercise
EatRight model encourages the intake of foods that have fewer calories by volume such as fruits, vegetables and whole grains, while limiting consumption of foods that are calorie-dense such as meats, cheeses, sugars and fats, and includes increasing physical activity and behavioural intervention to reduce or remove barriers to lifestyle change.
Free radicals are told to start cancinogenic reactions in vivo. Oxygen is the main source of free radicals such as Singulett-O2, superoxydation and the hydroxilradical.
In small amounts the radicals are used in many biochemical reactions. The amount of free radicals being however to high the benefit of the radicals turn out to be dangerous to the physiology of the cell ending in Arteriosclerosis and cancer.
The organism protects itself from free radicals with the building of an own free radical defence system helped by external antioxidant vitamins.
| Antioxidant vitamins |
Protective function against free radicals |
|---|
|
|
| Carotenoids (provitamin A) |
Singulett-O2 quencher. |
| Tocopherols (vitamin E ) |
Act as radical receiver in lipid layers |
| |
together with vitamin C mainly to protect |
| |
polyunsaturated fatty acids. |
| |
Tocopherols also protects beta-carotene |
| |
and vitamin A from autoxidation in cells. |
| |
|
| Vitamin C |
Act as radical receiver in the cytoplasm |
| |
together with vitamin E. It also |
| |
regenerates tocopherol from tocopheryl |
| |
radicals which were originated during the |
| |
antioxidant function. |
| |
Aspirin can triple the rate of excretion |
| |
of vitamin C |
| |
|
| Selenium, Zinc, copper, |
|
| manganese |
As elements being found as traces in enzyme |
| |
system of the cells. An undersupply of these |
| |
elements reduces the efficiency of vitamins, |
| |
therefore they are here included |
| Magnesium[330] |
Magnesium is a light metal which can burn in presence of oxygen, |
| |
being used as torch but also in metal alloys in |
| |
aeronautic.It is present in minerals, seawater and |
| |
mineral water, in plants as chlorophyll and wheat bran 590 mg/100g, |
| |
slim cocoa powder 500 mg/100g, sunflower seed kernel 20 mg/1000g, |
| |
sesame seed 350 mg/100g, cashew nut 270 mg/100g |
| |
peanuts 163 mg/100g, oat flakes instant 140 mg/100g |
| |
dried figs 70 mg/100g, Edam cheese 45% 59 mg/ 100g |
| |
cooked spinach 50 mg/100g, wholemeal bread 92 mg/100g |
| |
white bread 19 mg/100g. A balanced diet supplies sufficient magnesium |
| |
It is an important biological element for animals and humans. |
| |
It is a physiological antagonist of |
| |
calcium. Values of serum are 0,65-1,03 mmol/l |
| |
Magnesium is very important for many enzymatic |
| |
reactions (it activates all reactions where ATP is present. |
| |
Important for undisturbed building of bones, |
| |
It acts relaxing. It is being told that magnesium |
| |
improves the connections of the synapsis of |
| |
nerve cells having therefore anti stress function, |
| |
however there is no scientific evidence for it. |
| |
According to D. Hötze, C. Küpper and A. Zittermann[331] |
| |
research has been done relating a permanent |
| |
effect of the "stress hormones" catecholamine and cortisol. |
| |
The result of this research was that there is |
| |
a loss of magnesium. Other findings say there is an |
| |
improving of the stress situation with supplementation of |
| |
magnesium working in very laud places. |
| |
An undersupply of Magnesium may be an additional |
| |
factor of the origin of arteriosclerosis[332] |
| |
Undersupply of Magnesium electrolyte syndrome |
| |
caused by undersupply of magnesium due to |
| |
unbalanced diet, infusion therapy, chronic diarrhea, |
| |
special diets, excessive alcoholism. laxatives, |
| |
inflammation of the pancreas, diseases of the intestinal tract. |
| |
faulty absorption syndrome, magnesium loss through |
| |
urine with diuretica therapy. chemotherapy, Diabetes mellitus |
| |
Syndromes of undersupply of magnesium |
| |
are: Loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting,lack of drive, weakness. |
| |
Course tremor, cramps, cramp in the leg during |
| |
the night. Tetanic contractions. |
| Selenium |
Aside of its function in enzymes selenium |
| |
is known acting by itself as an antioxidant and |
| |
probably protecting from cancer. All other |
| |
inorganic elements have not been found with |
| |
antioxidant properties. |
The study of Finland
:
Over 5.000 men and women over a period of 14 years in Finland were given a nutrition with high levels of vitamin E They had a significantly lower cardiovascular death rate than the group with lower intake of vitamin E.
In women vitamin E had a synergistic activity with beta-Carotene and vitamin C. [333]
Karla Lawson in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study found that regular multivitamin use has no effect on prostate cancer. High levels of multivitamins along with other supplements have increased the risk of advanced and fatal prostate cancer by 32%. The risc was strongest in men with a family history of the disease, or amongst men taking additional micronutrient supplements, including beta-carotin, selenium, or zinc.
A new nested study published 2007 in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition reported that an increased selenium intake in combination with a daily multivitamin may reduce the risk of prostate cancer by about 40 per cent.
Goran Bjelakovic and Christian Gluud comment the study of Lawson and explain " that reactive oxygen species in moderate concentrations are essential mediators of reactions by which the body gets rid of unwanted cells. Thus, if administration of antioxidant supplements decreases free radicals, it may interfere with essential defensive mechanisms for ridding the organism of damaged cells, including those that are precancerous and cancerous.
Our diets typically contain safe levels of vitamins, but high-level antioxidant supplements could potentially upset an important physiologic balance." The author conclude that Lawson and colleagues add to the growing evidence that questions the beneficial value of antioxidant vitamin pills in generally well-nourished populations and underscore the possibility that antioxidant supplements could have unintended consequences for our health. [334]
Liz Baker, from the British charity Cancer Research UK commented the research saying that it's still not entirely clear what factors can affect a man's risk of developing prostate cancer. And there is conflicting evidence on the pros and cons of vitamin supplements. She refers to the benefits of vitamins that naturally occur in our food, and encourages consumers to eat a diet rich in fibre, vegetables and fruit, and low in red and processed meat. [335]
The results were challenged by Daniel Fabricant of the Natural Products Association (NPA). [336]
Prior and colleagues 2007 found that the consumption of berries and fruits
such as blueberries, mixed grape and kiwifruit, increased plasma Anti Oxidant
Capacity (AOC) measured as Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity in the
postprandial state. High caloric meals rich in carbohydrates, protein and fat
containing no antioxidants was associated with a decline in plasma AOC.
Antioxidants are cleared from blood in 2 - 4 hours after intake. Consumption
of antioxidants such as berries and fruits during each meal is therefore
recommended in order to prevent periods of postprandial oxidative stress.
Oxidative stress has been linked to an increased risk of various diseases
including cancer, Alzheimer's, and cardiovascular disease.
In this study dried plums and plum juice had no antioxidant activity.
Consumption of blueberries during meals increased hydrophilic AOC and the
lipophilic AOC. Mixed grape consumption with the meal was associated with a
increase in hydrophilic AOC, but not lipophilic AOC. Cherries, eaten with the
meal increased the lipophilic, but not the hydrophilic, AOC.
The authors call for more studies on this matter.
Chris Slatore and colleagues of the University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle presented the VITamins And Lifestyle (VITAL) study. No statistically significant relationships between different types of supplements and lung cancer were found in this study.
A study of more than 75.000 adults found that taking supplemental multivitamins, vitamin C and E and folate do not decrease the risk of lung cancer. The study, which also did not find any increased lung cancer risk from the supplements, is one of the most detailed, prospective observational studies to look at the effect of vitamin supplements instead of vitamins from foods on lung cancer risk.
This confirms foregoing studies which suggest that vitamin supplementation might not be as healthy as believed.:
In 1996, a large study known as the CARET study which was looking into the effects of the dietary supplements beta-carotene and retinol (vitamin A), was halted after the supplements were found to increase lung cancer risk, particularly among smokers. That study, and others, encouraged researchers to look more deeply into the relationship between supplements and lung cancer, Dr. Slatore said.
Supplements have been getting a lot of attention this year. In February, the Journal of the American Medical Association published an overview of studies that found that supplements of beta-carotene, vitamin E, or vitamin A slightly increases a person's risk of death.
The recommendations of the NCI are: "The results of the Physicians' Health Study showed no benefit or harm to nonsmokers who took beta carotene every other day for 12 years. The results from CARET and the ATBC Study do not provide information about the effects of beta carotene supplements on non-smokers. NCI does not make recommendations as to whether Americans should take supplements. For those who wish to reduce their risk of cancer, NCI advises that it is prudent to adopt a low-fat diet containing plenty of fruits, vegetables, and grains."
In a comment from Daniel Fabricant from the Natural Products Association the findings reported at the American Thoracic Society 2007 International Conference, on Monday, May 21, suggesting that taking supplemental multivitamins, vitamin C and E and folate do not decrease the risk of lung cancer were questioned. [340]
Stidley and colleagues 2010 report that early detection of lung cancer is
possible by monitoring gene promoter hypermethylation events in sputum. The
authors found that available multivitamins, folate and green vegetables
significantly protected against promoter methylation of lung cells of smokers,
monitored in sputum. The authors call for more studies on the ability of diet and
dietary supplements to affect reprogramming of the epigenome. to prevent lung
cancer.
Obstructive lung disease is a category of respiratory disease characterized by
airway obstruction. It includes asthma, Bronchitis, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and cystic fibrosis.
Romieu and Trenga, in a review of 2001, report that antioxidant vitamins,
particularly vitamin C and, to a lesser extent, vitamin E are useful to reduce
severity of the obstructive lung disease by decreasing oxidant stress to the
lung. Antioxidant vitamins could also play an important role in childhood
asthma and data also suggest that omega-3 fatty may protect against airway
hyperreactivity and lung function decrements, and cigarette smokers, may be
more likely to benefit from dietary supplementation.
Daily intake of vitamin C at levels slightly exceeding the current Recommended
Dietary Allowance (60 mg/day among nonsmokers and 100 mg/day among smokers)
may have a protective effect, and should should be recommended for populations
chronically exposed to photooxidant air pollutants (such as ozone), cigarette
smoking, or vigorous exercise Over a long period of 20-30 years it may be
significant in retarding lung decay. Bioavailability of vitamin C when given
in a single dose is 200 mg. Guidelines from the US National Cancer Institute
recommend consumption of five servings of fruit and vegetables daily. The
author stress that even a small increase in fruit servings could have a
beneficial effect in children. Magnesium infusion may help in case of cute
treatment of asthma, but is timely limited, say the authors.
The author gives suggestions for further studies on lung health and stresses the
necessity to convince the population to increase the consumption of fresh fruits
and vegetables, to stop smoking cigarettes, and to minimize their environmental
and occupational exposure to air pollutants.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is associated with a high
incidence mortality and cigarette smoke speeds the progression of the disease.
Various antioxidants, thiol antioxidants, specific spin traps and mucolytic
agents, and dietary polyphenols (curcumin, resveratrol, and green tea
catechins/quercetin) are used to increase intracellular thiol status along with
induction of GSH biosynthesis leading to detoxification of free radicals and
oxidants as well as inhibition of ongoing inflammatory responses. The author
concludes that therapeutic administration of multiple antioxidants and mucolytics
will be effective in management of COPD, however, the choice of antioxidant
therapy must be adapted for a particular clinical phenotype of the disease.
The American study
:
1.900 men in the USA with hypercholesterolemie from type IIa (according Frederickson) had shown over a period of 14 years an inverse relation between the total carotenoids in serum and cardiovascular diseases.
The EUR0MIC-Study
:
The EUROMIC Study has verified the risk of trans-fatty acidsin food. This study has demonstrated an inverse correlation between the level of beta-carotene and heart attack.
Basel Study
:
This study monitored 4.000 employees of a chemical industry during 7 years.
The study shows an inverse correlation between the serum level of beta-carotene and lung- and stomach carcinoma.
To obtain high levels of carotenoids, vitamin E and vitamin C, a nutrition rich in fibres and reduced in fat, typical for vegetables was used in these
studies. The prophylactic effect of this nutrition cannot be considered
apart from the effect of the vitamins lowering thus the importance of the
foregoing.
The ATBC Study of Finland
:
Over 29.000 men in Finland between 50 and 69 years were given 20 mg
beta-carotene and 50 mg vitamin E for 6 years.
The group of beta-carotene had an unexpected increase of 18 % of lung carcinoma and 8% higher mortality compared with the placebo group. Only the prostate gland carcinoma had 34% decreased and a very low decrease of colon carcinoma.
According to Albanes and colleagues 1996 the adverse effects of beta-carotene increased with modest alcohol intake and in those at least 20 cigarettes daily. [344]
According to leppälä participants taking vitamin E had fewer cases of prostate cancer and fewer deaths from prostate cancer. Death from hemorrhagic stroke was increased in men taking alpha-tocopherol supplements; the increase occurred primarily among men with hypertension, but prevents cerebral infarction. Beta-Carotene supplementation increases the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage in male smokers. [345]
Taking the vitamin supplements were stopped in April 1993 and followed the participants until April 1999 In the follow-up period, the participants taking beta-carotene experienced 7 percent higher overall mortality than men on the placebo. In the beta-carotene group, the higher mortality during the trial was due to cardiovascular disease and lung cancer. In contrast, the higher mortality during the post-intervention period was due to cardiovascular disease alone.
The adverse effects from beta-carotene and the beneficial effects from supplementation with alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) largely disappeared during the post-trial follow-up period. There were no additional beneficial late effects on cancer or mortality observed after the trial ended. The study supports the recommendation that beta-carotene supplementation should be avoided by smokers. The possible preventive effects of alpha-tocopherol on prostate cancer require confirmation in other ongoing trials.
Calcium is reported to be the biggest seller supplement claiming that high dietary intakes of calcium and dairy products to reduce prostate cancer risk.
Mitrou and colleagues 2007 in a study concerning dietary intakes of calcium and dairy products in relation to risk of prostate cancer in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene (ATBC) Cancer Prevention Study in smokers, found that calcium intake of more than 2,000 mg/day was associated with a marked increase in prostate cancer risk. Total dairy intake was also positively associated with risk of prostate cancer, but eliminating calcium from the data no risk of prostate cancer was found being calcium the pro-cancer agent of dairy products.
According to the authors intake of calcium or some related component contained in dairy foods is associated with increased prostate cancer risk.
Approximately 14.000 smokers and employed persons in asbestos industries
were given 30 mg beta-carotene and 25.ooo i.U. vitamin A during 6 years.
The rate of lung cancer rate was 28% higher and the death rate 17%
higher than the placebo group.
Over 12 years 22.000 male physicians in USA were given 50 mg/day beta-carotene. There was no significant change in cancer, heart disease rate or
mortality.
The Linxian Study
:
Linxian is a northern Chinese region which has worldwide the highest rate of
Oesophagus cancer and a very low intake of retinol,
beta-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin C and riboflavin.
In this study 29.000 men and women in the age of 40 to 69 years were supplemented
with 30 mg vitamin E, 15 mg beta-carotene, 30 microgram selenium. Death rate of Oesophagus cancer was reduced about 13%, stomach cancer about 21% and death of general origin about 9% compared with a placebo group.
The Nurses Health Study
:
87.000 healthy US nurses were supplemented with 100 mg vitamin E /day during 8 Years.
Death rate due to heart diseases was reduced to37% compared withe the placebo group.
The Health Professional Study
:
40.000 healthy US physicians were supplemented with 100 mg vitamin E /day during 4 Years.
Death rate due to heart diseases was reduced to 43% compared withe the placebo group.
In 2008 Pischon and colleagues examined the distribution of body fat and the
prediction of death rate. They found that the lowest risks of death related to
BMI were observed at a BMI of 25.3 for men and 24.3 for women. Waist
circumference and waist-to-hip ratio were strongly associated with the risk of
death. Relative risks among men and women of waist circumference were 2.05 for
men and 1.78 for women and waist-to-hip ratio, the relative risks were 1.68
for men, and 1.51 for women.
BMI remained significantly associated with the risk of death in models that
included waist circumference or waist-to-hip ratio. The authors concluded that
general adiposity and abdominal adiposity are associated with the risk of death.
The study supports the use of waist circumference or waist-to-hip ratio in
addition to BMI to assess the risk of death.
Data from the EPIC-PANACEA (European Prospective Investigation into
Cancer-Physical Activity, Nutrition, Alcohol, Cessation of Smoking, Eating out
of home And obesity) were used by Besson and colleagues to study the relation
of physical activity, body mass index and waist circumference. The authors
found that physical activity is inversely associated with both BMI and waist
circumference across nine European countries. The association causally could
not be found, but the results are based on large and diverse data.
Lahmann and colleagues 2009 report that according to data from the Prospective
Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort factors including general
and central adiposity and height, are associated with ovarian cancer risk. The
authors found that body mass index 30 kg/m2 was associated with excess
ovarian cancer risk, compared with BMI >25 kg/m2. Neither height, weight
gain, nor BMI-adjusted measures of fat distribution assessed by waist
circumference, waist-hip ratio (WHR), or hip circumference, were associated with
overall risk, however, WHR was related to mucinous tumours. The authors concluded
that obesity is a risk factor for epithelial ovarian cancer. Weight reduction may
thus help to reduce the risk in postmenopausal women.
Mozaffarian et al. 2011 report a weight gain of 3.35 lb during a four-year period of participants of the study. Weight change was most directly associated with the intake of potato chips, potatoes, sugar-sweetened beverages, unprocessed red meats, and processed meats, and inversely associated with the intake of vegetables, whole grains, fruits, nuts, and yoghurt.
Lifestyle factors, such as physical activity; alcohol use, smoking; former smokers, sleep (more weight gain with less than 6 or more than 8 hours of sleep), and television watching were independently associated with weight gain. These factors may influence the "eat less and exercise more" strategy.
Gallo and colleagues, analysing data of EPIC, report that smokers and those who
smoked more than 33 years have an almost two-fold risk of dying from ALS, while
the risk of former smokers is 50%, compared to never smokers. The authors
highlight the role of cigarette smoking in the aetiology of ALS and write that
the exposure to formaldehyde from the smoke triggers the lipid peroxidation causing the disease.
Susanna C. Larsson and colleagues prospectively investigated the association
between consumption of fruits and vegetables and the incidence of gastric
cancer among women of the Swedish Mammography Cohort and men of the Cohort
of Swedish Men, found that consumption of green leafy vegetables and root
vegetables was inversely associated with risk of gastric cancer.
The authors concluded that frequent consumption of vegetables (three or more
servings a week) of green leafy vegetables, like spinach, lettuce, and green
salad reduced the risk of stomach cancer by 46% and roots vegetables by 57%
compared with a group who ate less than half a serving every week. No relation
between fruit consumption and stomach cancer was found.
From all these studies it is to be noted:
- No help to reduce cancer incidence is expected with high dose of antioxidant vitamins in high risk groups such as heavy smoker when cancer already had started before begin of the supplementation.
- Very high, not physiological dose of beta-carotene can start prooxidative reactions in relation to the tension of oxygen in cells.
The studies were made with high dose of beta-carotene which are not
obtained with normal food.
- Vitamin E can act as antioxidant only in presence of sufficient concentration of vitamin C.
Vitamin C bears the danger to build Fe++ ions when high iron levels are present.
- In some regions were not sufficient supply of vitamins are present a supplementation with low dose of antioxidant vitamins can act positively
- With a nutrition rich in vegetables and fruits and reduced amount of
lipids there is no need to supplement with vitamins because ideal blood
levels are normally achieved
RDI of vitamin C
The recommended daily intake of the vitamin C in Europe is 60 mg. In the US,
men are recommended to consume 90 mg per day, and women 75 mg per day.
To provide data for the RDA of vitamin C, Mark Levine and colleagues
conducted an in-hospital depletion-repletion study. They found that
bioavailability was complete for 200 mg of vitamin C as a single dose. No
vitamin C was excreted in urine of six of seven volunteers until the 100-mg
dose. At single doses of 500 mg and higher, bioavailability declined and the
absorbed amount was excreted. Oxalate and urate excretion were elevated at
1000 mg of vitamin C daily compared to lower doses. Based on these data and
Institute of Medicine criteria, the current RDA of 60 mg daily should be
increased to 200 mg daily, which can be obtained from fruits and vegetables.
Safe doses of vitamin C are less than 1000 mg daily, and vitamin C daily doses
above 400 mg have no evident value. [354]
Blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and tissue plasminogen activator
(t-PA), known as markers linked to inflammation were found inversely
associated with Plasma vitamin C, fruit intake, and dietary vitamin C.
Goya Wannamethee and colleagues from the RoyalFree and University College
Medical School, London concluded that vitamin C has antiinflammatory effects
and is associated with lower endothelial dysfunction in men with
no history of cardiovascular disease or diabetes.
The authors found that the high blood levels of vitamin C were associated with
a 45 per cent reduced risk of inflammation (with respect to CRP levels), and
high fruit intake was related to a 25 per cent reduced risk of inflammation.
Plasma (but not dietary) vitamin C also showed inverse associations with both
fibrinogen concentrations and blood viscosity. No associations were seen with
von Willebrand factor or factor VIII.
Previous clinical trials (with diabetics, smokers and healthy men) had not
reported an anti-inflammatory effect from vitamin C supplementation.
In contrast, intravenous vitamin C trials did report an improvement in
endothelial function.
Ishwarlal Jialal and Uma Singh from the University of California Davis Medical
Center, writes in an editorial that in respect to the antiinflammatory
effects of vitamin C, the article of Wannamethee does not allow the drawing
of any valid conclusions. Much further research in a dose-response structure
is required to ascertain whether oral vitamin C supplementation is
antiinflammatory and whether it improves endothelial dysfunction. Until such
studies have been conducted, it is safe to adhere to the guidelines of
national organizations to consume e 5 or more daily servings of fruit and vegetables.
Other shortcomings of the article of Wannamethee are cited in this editorial:
The study was only focused on elderly white men and thus could not be
generalized for other groups.
The use of t-PA as a measure of endothelial inflammation is being questioned.
Previous clinical trials (with diabetics, smokers and healthy men) had not
reported an anti-inflammatory effect from vitamin C supplementation.
Intravenous vitamin C trials did report an improvement in endothelial function.
The authors call for more research in a dose-response to ascertain whether
oral vitamin C supplementation is anti-inflammatory and whether it improves
endothelial dysfunction.
According to Mohamed Rafi and Yassaman Shafaie lutein is an oxycarotenoid
primarily found in dark-green leafy vegetables such as spinach and kale and
moderate amounts were found in corn, egg yolks, and fruits like oranges and
kiwi. Lutein reduces the risk of age related macular degeneration. It also
reduces chronic inflammation caused by an over-expression or lack of control
of the normal protective mechanism and this may lead to inflammatory diseases
such as of the heart.
The author investigated in 2005 the in vitro anti-inflammatory effect of
lutein using LPS-stimulated mouse macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7). In this
study LPS was found to stimulate the production of nitric oxide (NO) which is
detrimental effects to the host.
The authors write that the addition of lutein reduced NO production significantly
by decreasing the expression of the inducible NO synthase (iNOS) enzyme at the
mRNA level and protein levels. According
to AMD Alliance Internationa age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the
leading cause of vision loss for people over the age of 50 in the Western
world, affecting approximately 25-30 million people. [359]
Vincenzo Parisi, and colleagues say that the daily antioxidant and carotenoid
supplements of 180 mg vitamin C, 30 mg vitamin E, 22.5 mg zinc, 1 mg copper,
10 mg lutein, 1 mg zeaxanthin, and 4 mg astaxanthin was found to improve the
function of the central retina among 27 people with non-advanced AMD.
Other studies had found that leafy green vegetables, corn, egg yolks, squash,
broccoli and peas, rich in lutein and zeaxanthin reduce the risk of AMD by
absorbing blue light that could damage the macula.
Tuo and colleagues 2009 report that high n-3 fatty acid enriched EPA and DHA
diet slowed progression of age-related macular degeneration in mice. Also
reversion of some retinal lesions were found. The authors suggest that the
arachidonic acid metabolism decreased pro-inflammatory derivatives
(prostaglandin E2 and leukotriene B4) and increased anti-inflammatory
derivative (prostaglandin D2). Their results support other findings in human
studies on the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on age-related macular
degeneration.
In general, a reduction in dietary cholesterol is recommended to prevent
cardiovascular disease (CVD).
Djoussé and Gaziano 2008 studied the effect of egg consumption regarding to
the risk of all-cause mortality and CVD mortality on account of its content
of cholesterol of its egg-yolk.
In this 20 years study the authors found eating more than 1 egg a day was related
to all-cause mortality stronger association was noted among diabetic subjects. However infrequent egg consumption does not seem to influence the risk of CVD or
stroke.
According to Robert H Eckel concerns about egg consumption and atherosclerotic
risk have to do with the cholesterol content of eggs. Eckel stresses that
cholesterol absorption has been shown to be higher in patients with type 1
diabetes but not in patients with type 2 diabetes,and suggests that most of
the subjects with diabetes in the study had type 2, not type 1, diabetes,
explaining the higher mortality of diabetes subjects.
Eckel also points out that the all-causes were not specifically analysed and
coronary cases were omitted. Also other factors healthy factors such as age,
smoking, physically activity, breakfast cereal eating habits, were not
included in the study.
Eckel advices to discard the egg yolk and use only the egg white. Eating whole
eggs should be less than 3-4 d/week, and patients with diabetes should be prudent
with eggs.
Paul Mitchell and colleagues found that higher dietary lutein and zeaxanthin
intake reduced the risk of long-term incident AMD. This study confirmed the
Age-Related Eye Disease Study finding of protective influences from zinc
against AMD. Higher beta-carotene intake was associated with an increased risk of AMD.
Energy-adjusted intakes of alfa-carotene; beta-carotene; beta-cryptoxanthin;
lutein and zeaxanthin; lycopene; vitamins A, C, and E; and iron and zinc were at
focus in this study.
The EU Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies found that the
safety could not be established for synthetic zeaxanthin as an ingredient in
food supplements for a level of up to 20 mg/person/day.
According to the Panel, in European countries, the average intake level of
zeaxanthin via food was estimated to be between 0.2 and 0.9 mg/day and for
people with a high intake of zeaxanthin-rich vegetables and fruits this could
result in a level of 1.8 mg/day. The proposed use levels of up to 20
mg/person/day of synthetic zeaxanthin as an ingredient in food supplements
would lead to intake levels up to 100 times higher than the average intake
from natural sources.
These intake levels are within the range of the group ADI 0-2 mg/kg body weight
for lutein and synthetic zeaxanthin as established by JECFA. However, in the
opinion of the Panel, the toxicological data on synthetic zeaxanthin are not
sufficient to derive an acceptable daily intake.
Zeaxanthin is one of the two carotenoids contained within the retina of the
eye. Within the central macula, zeaxanthin is the dominant component, whereas
in the peripheral retina, lutein predominates.
As a food additive, zeaxanthin is a food colour wtith E number E161h.
Zeaxanthin is one of the most common carotenoid alcohols found in nature. It
is the pigment that gives corn, saffron, and many other plants their
characteristic colour. Zeaxanthin breaks down to form picrocrocin and
safranal, which are responsible for the taste and aroma of saffron. Sources of
zeaxanthin and lutein are eggs, spinach and other green vegetables.
Low plasma concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin may increase the risk of
developing age-related macula degeneration (AMD). Some studies say that
supplemental lutein and/or zeaxanthin could reduce the risk of AMD
[366] and cataract. [367]
Chong and colleagues 2008 in a systematic review and meta-analysis the evidence
on dietary omega-3 fatty acid and fish intake in the primary prevention of
age-related macular degeneration (AMD found that findings of this meta-analysis
suggests that consumption of fish and foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids may be
associated with a lower risk of AMD, however, there is insufficient evidence
from the current literature to support their routine consumption for AMD
prevention.
According to the European EUREYE study age-related macular degeneration (AMD)
is the single most common cause of adult blind registration in many developed
countries, including Europe. AMD occurs predominantly in the older population,
especially in those aged over 70 years.
There are two main types of AMD: neovascular "wet" AMD, and geographic atrophy
"dry" AMD. AMD is considered to represent the severe form of a constellation
of morphological changes in the retina that occur in the ageing eye.
Longitudinal studies have shown that, in around one in five people, these
features are a risk for the development of AMD.
The EUREYE study included possible causes such as dietary risks, smoking,
solar radiation and antioxidant vitamins.
Cristina Augood and colleagues 2008 writing for EUREYE report that eating once a
week oily fish rich in DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)
the risk of neovascular AMD (NV-AMD) was halved. According to the authors vitamin
D might be a protective agent for AMD through its anti-inflammatory properties.
There was no independent association between dietary vitamin D and NV-AMD when
either EPA or DHA were included in the model. [369]
Boekhoorn and colleagues in the Rotterdam study 2008 found no relationship
between overall or specific alcohol consumption and risk of aging macula disorder
(AMD), a synonym for age-related macular degeneration. The authors concluded that
alcohol consumption is not a risk factor for AMD.
Some epidemiological studies claimed that supplementation with beta-carotene
have no heart protective effect. Other authors turned, therefore, their
attention to other carotinoids like lutein and zeaxanthin:
James H.Dwye and colleagues found in 2001 in the Los Angeles Atherosclerosis
Study that the protective effects of the oxygenated carotenoid lutein against
early atherosclerosis. Their findings in vitro, and mouse model support the
hypothesis that increased dietary intake of lutein is protective against the
development of early atherosclerosis. [371]
Lidebjer and colleagues in a 2006 studied plasma levels of oxygenated
carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin) and hydrocarbon
carotenoids (alfa-carotene, beta-carotene, lycopene) in patients with
coronary artery disease and relate the findings to clinical, metabolic and
immune parameters.
The authors found that lower plasma levels of oxygenated carotenoids, in
particular lutein+zeaxanthin, compared to controls were associated with
cardiovascular disease. Low levels of oxygenated carotenoids were also
associated other cardiovascular risk factors such as smoking, high body mass
index, low high density lipoprotein cholesterol and, to a minor degree,
inflammatory activity. Plasma levels of lutein+zeaxanthin were independently
associated with the proportions of natural killer cells which , but not with
other lymphocytes, in blood, indicating that certain carotinoids may play a
role in the immunology of heart diseases. Natural killer cells are part of
the human immune response system.
Dietary sources of lutein and zeaxanthin include corn, egg yolk, broccoli, green
beans, cabbage, lettuce and kiwi fruit. [372]
Hannia Campos and colleagues in a study of 2005 concluded that Adipose tissue
beta-carotene showed a significant inverse relation with myocardial infarction
risk; Intake of fruits and vegetables that are rich in beta-carotene was also
inversely associated with the risk of myocardial infarction. The authors
suggest that beta-carotene protects against myocardial infarction or it is a
marker of some protective factor in foods containing beta-carotene.
In contrast, lutein and zeaxanthin in adipose tissue increased the myocardial
infarction risk. Other carotenoids or tocopherols in the diet or adipose
tissue showed no effect on myocardial infarction.
Daan Kromhout and colleaugues in 2008 found that dietary intakes of alfa-carotene
and beta-carotene reduced the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality in
elderly men. However, other carotenoids, tocopherols, or vitamin C do not have an
effect on cardiovascular diseases death. [374]
Results of the Epidemiology of Vascular Ageing (EVA) study show that Low total
plasma carotenoid level was significantly associated with all-cause mortality in
men but not in women. Akbaraly, Favier and Berr 2008 explain that high intakes of
fruits and vegetables were associated with lower mortality due to their carotenoids which have antioxidant properties. A low plasma carotenoid level was
also associated with cancer in men. The authors suggest that total plasma
carotenoid levels could be a health indicator in elderly populations.
There are eight forms of vitamin E:
Tocopherols: alpha, beta, gamma, delta. Alpha-tocopherol is found in
supplements and in the European diet, and gamma-tocopherol is found in the
American diet.
Tocotrienols: alpha, beta, gamma, delta. They are found in
palmoil, cereal grains and rice bran.
Yoshiyuki Mizushina from the Kobe-Gakuin University, leading author studied
the effects of all eight forms of vitamin E on the inhibition of mammalian DNA
polymerase, the enzyme that assists DNA replication. He found that tocotrienols could stop the spread of cancer cells.
The four tocopherols did not influence the activities of mammalian polymerases
and had no effect on the spread of cancer cells.
Alpha- and delta-tocotrienols inhibited polymerase lambda activity, and inhibited the spread of cancer cells, and angiogenesis (the growth of new
blood vessels) is inhibited and the spread of the cancer to other parts of the
body is hindered reducing risk of metastasis.
Other Study by Chandon Sen, Savita Khanna and Sashwati Roy [377] support identical claims for tocotrienols, including
neuroprotection, reduction of cholesterol, as an antioxidant, and other
anti-cancer studies.
According to Marjorie L. McCullough and colleagues lower risk of endometrial
cancer was associated with greater vegetable consumption but not fruit
consumption, and an inverse association with fruits and vegetables combined
have been suggested.
In context of the American Cancer Society's Cancer Prevention Study II
Nutrition Cohort the authors found that neither fruit consumption nor
vegetable consumption was associated with risk. Only among women who had never
used hormone replacement therapy was the risk of endometrial cancer lower or
vegetable consumption. The authors concluded that an association between
vegetable or fruit consumption and endometrial cancer cannot be supported. Ute Nöthlings and colleagues assessed the effect of flavonols on pancreatic
cancer risk, estimating the intakes of three flavonols quercetin, kaempferol,
and myricetin.
Total flavonols was associated with a reduced pancreatic cancer risk,
kaempferol was associated with the largest risk reduction. Total flavonols,
quercetin, kaempferol, and myricetin were all associated with a significant
inverse trend among current smokers but not never or former smokers. The
authors concluded that flavonols have a preventive effect on pancreatic
cancer, and stressed that current smokers do profit from that.
Ai Kubo and colleagues assessed the dietary patterns of patients with Barrett's
Esophagus. They found that a diet high in fruits, vegetables, and nonfried
fish was inversely associated with Barrett's esophagus. A diet high in fast
food and meat produced an adverse effect on the risk of the disease.
The authors concluded that there is a strong associations between a diet rich
in fruits and vegetables and the risk of Barrett's esophagus.
This backs the WHO recommendations to eat 400 g of fruit and vegetable a day.
Ai Kubo and colleagues 2008 evaluated the associations among antioxidants,
fruit and vegetable intake, and the risk of Barrett's esophagus, a potential
precursor to esophageal adenocarcinoma.
The authors found that dietary antioxidants, fruits, and vegetables are inversely
associated with the risk of Barret's esophagus, while no association was observed
for supplement intake. Kubo and colleagues suggest that fruits and vegetables
themselves or a not yet identified compound of fruits and vegetables may reduce
the risc of esophageal cancer.
Vegetable phenols
Vegetable polyphenols are due to historical background known as
"tannin" when they are able to tan animal skin to
leather.
Substances of the group of the vegetable phenols act antioxidant similar to antioxidant vitamins. These substances are:
Chlorogenic acid
Quercetin is an antioxidant found in red onions, the skins of apples, grapes,
blueberries, broccoli, tea and red wine. Quercentin is known for its chronic
disease-fighting benefits and reduction in blood pressure.
Davis and colleagues 2008, found that quercentin may boost the immune systems
and protect against flu. According to the authors exercise stress is
associated with increased risk of infections of the upper respiratory tract.
The researchers used the influenza virus A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (H1N1) to infect mice after stressful exercise. The authors report that gavage of quercetin
(12.5 mg/kg) 7 days before viral challenge reduced morbidity, mortality, and
symptom severity of respiratory infections after stressful exercise.
Hu Wei and collegues 2003 improved the extraction of quercentin. The authors
report that pre-dispersed solvent extraction (PDSE) was used to extract
quercentin from its diluted solution. Compared with traditional extraction
techniques under the same condition, a higher extraction productivity can be
obtained by this method. The stability of colloidal liquid aphrons plays an
important role in this process. Furthermore, the authors improved the
analytical method by using ultraviolet spectrometer to determine the
concentration of quercentin.
Flavonoids
Anthocyanesare the most important flavonoids.Anthocyanes
are found mainly in red grape peel, in red beet and bilberry.
Flavonoids are found in nature having phenylchroman as basic
element. Its characteristic molecular formula is C6- C3- C6. Important flavonoids are:
quercentins: Scientists of the University of California
have found that quercentins are present in yellow and red onions, red grapes
and broccoli. Quercentins are anticancer agents suppressing malignant cells
before they form tumors an were used against capillary fragility, easy
bruising and small pin-point hemorrhages
Quercentin is obtained by steam distillation of quercentins bark and epicatechin, in the rinds and barks of wild fruits and the rhododendron,
forsythia, hydrangea, pansies and eucalyptus Antocyanes
Catechines(Flavanoles).
Flavonole
Flavone
Flavanole: (= 3-Hydroxyflavone)
Flavanonole: (= 3-Hydroxy-2,3-dihydroflavone)
Flavanoneor catechin: (= 2,3-Dihydroflavone)
Anthocyanide
Isoflavone
These substances interrupt the radical chain reaction in lipids of the
cell membrane avoiding the formation of oxidized LDL which starts ateriosclerotic diseases.
They have reducing properties.
Flavonoids may also act as antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic.
Some activities of flavonoids in human are studied but are not
confirmed yet:
Inhibition of enzymes with carcinogenic activity.
Inhibition of proteolytic enzymes.
Polyphenoles of these groups are found in many fruits and vegetables.
That is why more fruits and vegetables and less meat, fat and alcoholics should be consumed.
Tea is the main source of catechins. According to the Rotterdam-Study
the consumption of tea protects against heavy aorta ateriosclerosis
in particular in women.[384]
Important varieties and their content of polyphenoles are:
Camellia sinensis var. assamica:
- High content of catechins and coffein
- High activity of Phenoloxidase activity resulting in dark brown
colour of black tea
Camellia sinensis var. sinensis:
- Lower content of catechins and caffeine as noted in assamica
- Lower activity of Phenoloxidase activity which makes it
suitabler for the production of green tea
There is substantial in vitro and in vivo evidence
implicating tea polyphenols as chemopreventive agents against various cancers.
However, epidemic data collected by researchers of the Department of
Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of
Medicine, Los Angeles are not supportive of a protective role of tea, mainly
black tea, in the aetiology of breast cancer.
The case study showed that both green tea and soy intake had significant,
independent protective effects on breast cancer risk The results of this case
study point to an important roleof both green tea and soy intake in relation
to breast cancer risk. [385] Boyd and colleagues 1997 assessed the effect of low-fat, high-carbohydrate
diet on radiologic densities of the breast. Fat is radiolucent and appears
dark on mammography, while stromal and epithelial tissue has greater optical
density and appears light. Extensive areas of radiologically dense breast
tissue seen on mammography are associated with an increased risk of breast
cancer.
In this trial the authors found that a low-fat (21% of calories),
high-carbohydrate diet (61%) reduced the area of mammographic density. Control
group received a diet of 32% of calories of fat and 50% from carbohydrates.
Longer observation of a larger number of subjects will be required to determine
whether these effects are associated with changes in risk of breast cancer.
Boyd and colleagues 1999 assessed the reduction in breast density effect of
specific macronutrients in women. The authors found that reduction in total or
saturated fat intake or cholesterol intake was significantly associated with
decreased dense area, whereas reduction in dietary cholesterol intake was the
most effective.
The authors suggest that the observation of an effect of diet at menopause on
breast density may be an indication that exposures at this time have an enhanced
effect on subsequent risk.
Sala and colleagues investigated the effect of food and nutrient intake on
mammographic patterns. Mammographic parenchymal patterns are related to breast
cancer risk and are also thought to be affected by diet.
The authors found that high intake of total protein and carbohydrate doubled
the breast cancer risk. Total meat intake increased high risk patters among
post-menopausal women. There was no excess risk for fat intake, and no
association between intake of vitamins and mammographic parenchymal patterns was found.
The authors, analysing the results of their study, suggest that certain
macronutrients and foods such as protein, carbohydrate and meat intake influence
the risk of breast cancer through their effects on breast tissue morphology,
whereas fat and vitamins do not affect mammographic density. It seems that
parenchymal pattern acts as an informative biomarker of the effect of some
macronutrient and foodstuffs intake on breast cancer risk. Boyd and colleagues 2008 had previously found that a low-fat
dietary intervention for 2 years in women with extensive mammographic density
decreased mammographic density to a greater extent than in the control group.
Post-hoc analysis indicated that this effect was strongest in women who became
postmenopausal during the follow-up period. [386]
A new study to confirm these data included women who were premenopausal at entry
and became postmenopausal during follow-up. Total breast and non dense area
increased more in the control group compared to the intervention group. However
dense area decreased to a similar degree in both groups. Menopause reduced
density to a similar extent in the low-fat diet and control groups. If a low-fat
diet reduces breast cancer risk, the effect is unlikely to be through changes in
mammographic density at menopause.
David Ingram and colleagues assess the association between phyto-oestrogen
intake (as measured by urinary excretion) and the risk of breast cancer. In
this study the isoflavonic phyto-oestrogens daidzein, genistein, and equol,
and the lignans enterodiol, enterolactone, and matairesinol were controlled.
There is a substantial reduction in breast-cancer risk among women with a high
intake (as measured by excretion) of phyto-oestrogens-particularly the
isoflavonic phyto-oestrogen equol and the lignan enterolactone. The other phytoestrogens did not reduce the risk significantly. These findings could be
important in the prevention of breast cancer.
Isabel dos Santos Silva and colleagues 2002 investigated the role of lifelong
vegetarianism on the aetiology of female breast cancer. Their findings suggest
that lifelong vegetarianism with high intake of vegetables and pulses may be
associated with a reduction in the risk of breast cancer. A lifelong meat
abstention may also play a role.
The authors concluded that a diet rich in vegetables and pulses, such as found
in South Asian diets, may be protective against breath cancer.
In 2004 Isabel dos Santos Silva and
colleagues investigated the phyto-oestrogens association with breast cancer
risk in South Asian women from the Indian subcontinent, whose diet is rich in
pulses and vegetables but poor in soy foods.
According to their findings high phyto-oestrogen intake may protect against
breast cancer, but the authors call for further research in this matter.
The general advice is to consume eight glasses of water a day (2 - 2.5 litres),
which is approximately equal to the amount lost through normal bodily functions.
One litre as an absolute minimum to avoid kidney damage During times of excess
perspiration (such as heavy exercise). Tea and coffee also count as water intake.
Outdoor sports and physical activity in the heat are safe for most healthy children and adolescents given adequate preparation, modifications, and monitoring, says the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
The paper describes risk factors for heat illness in youth and possible modifications of sports activities to reduce this risk. However, thermoregulatory ability, cardiovascular capacity, and tolerance for physical activity are not relatively impaired in youth compared to adults exercising in the heat, provided hydration is adequate.
The 2011 policy statement says that heat illness is entirely preventable if coaches and other adults take some precautions to protect the young athletes. Most healthy children and athletes can safely participate in outdoor sports and activities in a wide range of warm to hot weather, but adults sometimes create situations that are potentially dangerous. The risk for heat stress illness during sports is increased by factors such as insufficient recovery between rounds of exercise, inappropriate clothing that retain excessive heat, closely scheduled competition, or inappropriate protective equipment.
Coaches should make decisions to improve safety for a team or event as a whole. Individual participants may require more or less concern based on their health status and conditioning such as overweight and obesity, recent recovery from diarrhoea or viral illness, chronic physical conditions, poor physical fitness, insufficient sleep or rest, and lack of acclimatization to warm temperatures and/or high humidity when the season of hot weather begins. Therefore the AAP does not give precise recommendations regarding whether games or practices should be cancelled if temperatures reach a certain level and revokes the policy statement issued in 2000. [395] - Drinking fluids should be encouraged at regular intervals.
- Participants should be gradually introduced and permitted to adapt to the climate.
- Physical activity should be modified as necessary by reducing duration and/or intensity, increasing the frequency and duration of breaks and moving them to the shade if possible, and cancelling the activity if weather is severe.
- Between the sessions youth should be given at least 2 hours of recovery time.
- Children or adolescents who are currently or who were recently ill, and those with other risk factors, should be permitted only limited or postponed participation.
- Participants should be closely monitored for signs and symptoms of developing heat-related illness.
This statement and a series of nutrition-related policy statements of the AAP are available online. [396]
Hydration and detox diets promote excess water consumption. According to Sarah
Palmer from Daily Mail a low plasma sodium level with brain damage or death may
occur when too much water is consumed. Several adverse outcome are known.
Some hydrating diets, like detox diets recommend drinking five to six litres of
water and eating only fruit and vegetables with no salt for a number of days.
This may work for a short period, but salt levels, after some time, will fall
below a harmful levels. Most prominent detox advocate is Dr Nish Joshi. [397] [397] [398]
Dr. Andrew Wadge from UK FSA says that instead of being tempted by the latest
"detox" diet or supplements one should drink a glass or two of water (tap is
fine, cheaper and more sustainable than bottled), get a little exercise - maybe a
walk in the park - and third, enjoy some nice home-cooked food. There's a lot of
nonsense talked about "detoxing" and most people seem to forget that we are born
with a built-in detox mechanism. It's called the liver. [399]
According to UK Food Standards Agency, the term "Detox" refers to a function in
the body and would be a health claim. As detox could refer to a range of
functions, whether this is a health claim that should be listed in the Community
Register of authorised claims or is a claim referring to general, non-specific
benefits of the nutrient or food for overall good health or health-related well-
being, may depend on the nature of the product.
A herbal tea of safflower and cinnamon is being produced as a Detox herbal tea
by the Bhutanese Menjong Sorig Pharmaceuticals, backed by the Institute of
Traditional Medicinal Services from the Health Ministry of Bhutan.
Bhutanese traditional medicine: According to the company, Bhutan has
integrated the traditional medical system, known as gso-ba rig-pa, in the
modern healthcare system, achieving better results in public health.
The traditional medicine aims to understand the Universe, man, and his sicknesses
and is an holistic approach in the treatment of human beings. It not only
considers in treating the disease and its causes but also considers the
interdependency of man and nature and has spiritual component included in the
treatment. [402]
Detox diet is a marketing term used to describe diets that are purported to
detoxify the body, by removal of toxins or other contaminants. Proponents
claim they improve health, energy, resistance to disease, mental state,
digestion, despite a lack of supporting evidence, as well as aiding in weight
loss. Many scientists, dietitians, and doctors, however, regard 'detox diets'
as less effective than drinking a glass of water, and view 'detox diets' as
generally harmless (unless nutritional deficiency results) but a waste of money.
[404]
The charitable trust Sense About Science group say that products promoted as
"detox" agents, highlighting a significant lack of evidence and a misleading
use of scientific terminology.
They assessed 15 products products of bottled water, vitamins, shampoo, detox
patches and body brushes. In this study the group found no evidence that
products widely promoted to help the body "detox" work, many detox claims were
"meaningless". The authors stress that if they were to have any action upon
the body at all, the same could be achieved by drinking plenty of water,
having a healthy balanced diet and plenty of sleep.
The Advertising Standards Authority said it would investigate such claims on a
case-by-case basis if a complaint was made. The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) defines CAM as a group of diverse medical
and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently
considered to be part of conventional medicine. Conventional medicine is
medicine as practiced by holders of M.D. (medical doctor) or D.O. (doctor of
osteopathy) degrees and by their allied health professionals, such as physical
therapists, psychologists, and registered nurses.
Kathi J. Kemper, MD, MPH, and colleagues from the Task Force on Complementary
and Alternative Medicine and the Provisional Section on Complementary,
Holistic, and Integrative Medicine. Released a report aiming to define terms;
to review the epidemiology; to list frequently used CAM modalities; to discuss
medicolegal, ethical, and research implications; to describe education and
training for CAM providers; to offer resources for additional learning
regarding CAM; and to suggest communication strategies that clinicians may
find helpful when discussing CAM with patients and families. The terms
holistic medicine or integrative medicine is being increasingly substituted for CAM.
In their report Kemper and colleagues describe a model of holistic care which includes:
Biochemical components: Included are items such as medications, dietary supplements,
vitamins, minerals, herbal remedies.
Lifestyle: The lifestyle includes nutrition, exercise/rest, environmental therapies such as heat, ice, music, vibration, and light, mind-body therapies (behavior management, meditation, hypnosis,
biofeedback, counseling).
Biomechanical components: Included are
massage and bodywork, chiropractic and osteopathic adjustment, and surgery. Bioenergetic therapies may include acupuncture, radiation therapy,
magnets, Reiki, healing touch, qi gong, therapeutic touch, prayer, homeopathy.
Homeopathy
was developed by Samuel Hahnemann in
1790 It is based on the theory that an ill person can be treated using a
substance that can produce, in a healthy person, symptoms similar to those of the
illness. According to Hahnemann, serial dilution, with shaking between each
dilution, removes the toxic effects of the substance, while the essential
qualities are retained by the diluent (water, sugar, or alcohol).
The National Rules for Homoeopathic Products 2006 No. 1952 came into force that
permit homeopathic products to make medical claims but exempt them from
providing any scientific evidence that they are effective.
According to the Sense About Science Group, the regulation of medicines moves
away from science and from clear, meaningful information for the public. The
UK's licensing body, the Medicine and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency
(MHRA), with the introduction of the new rules for homeopathy, accepts
homeopathic provings as evidence of efficacy. A 'proving' is the method
homeopaths use to determine the symptoms a substance causes (with a view to
treating diseases with similar symptoms). Provings are not carried out on the
finished product and are nothing to do with efficacy, says the group.
[407]
The Homeopathic Pharmacopeia of the United States includes standards for source, composition and preparation of homeopathic drugs. In 1938 a recognition of any product listed in the Homeopathic Pharmacopeia was included in the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.
FDA regulates homeopathic drugs in separate from other drugs. New drugs application to FDA are not compulsory. All homeopathic products are exempt from good manufacturing practice requirements related to expiration dating and from finished product testing for identity and strength. FDA found no toxicity or poison-control reason for safety and quality controls because homeopathic products contain little or no active ingredients.
The Current Procedural Terminology code (CPT) accurately describes medical,
surgical, and diagnostic services and is designed to communicate uniform
information about medical services and procedures among physicians, coders,
patients, accreditation organizations, and payers for administrative, financial,
and analytical purposes. Despite the public's increasing use of CAM therapies
and willingness to pay out-of-pocket for these services, health insurers have had
difficulty including them in their plans because of variation in credentialing,
difficulties with accounting, and because there are so few Current Procedural
Terminology (CPT) codes that cover these services.
In 2000, the US President and Congress assembled and mandated the White House
Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine Policy to make
administrative and legislative recommendations to maximize the benefits of CAM
for Americans.
Until recently, the primary response of Federal, state, and local health care
regulatory agencies to this phenomenon was to restrict access to and delivery of
CAM services to protect the public from unproven and potentially dangerous
treatments. Since the early 1990s, however, scientific evidence has begun to
emerge suggesting that some CAM approaches and products, when used appropriately,
can be beneficial for treating illness and promoting health. As this evidence is
collected and disseminated to the wider health care community and the public, it
should provide a reliable basis for making policy decisions that will facilitate
the public's access to safe and effective CAM approaches and products.
Complementary and Alternative Medicine related issues are regulated by the FDA
through The Dietary Supplements Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA),
classifying them as dietary supplements.
The law defines dietary supplements in part as products taken by mouth that
contain a "dietary ingredient". Dietary ingredients include vitamins,
minerals, amino acids, and herbs or botanicals, as well as other substances
that can be used to supplement the diet.
Generally, manufacturers do not need to register their products with FDA nor
get FDA approval before producing or selling dietary supplements.
Manufacturers must make sure that product label information is truthful and
not misleading.
FDA's post-marketing responsibilities include monitoring safety, e.g.
voluntary dietary supplement adverse event reporting, and product information,
such as labeling, claims, package inserts, and accompanying literature. The
Federal Trade Commission regulates dietary supplement advertising.
The DSHEA regulates informational materials, the labeling of dietary
supplements. Claims to prevent, treat, or cure a specific disease are expressly
prohibited, unless approved by the FDA. [412]
Freudenheim and colleagues 1996 studied the role of diet, including the intake
of non-food supplements, and premenopausal breast cancer risk. According to
the authors intake of vitamins C and E and folic acid taken as supplements did
not reduce the breast cancer risk.
The authors concluded that intake of vegetables appears to decrease premenopausal
breast cancer risk. This effect may be related, in part, to beta-carotene and
lutein + zeaxanthin in vegetables. n The researchers stress that no single
dietary factor explains the effect, and components found together in vegetables
may have a synergistic effect on breast cancer risk. Adzersen and colleagues 2003 published a case-control
study of breast cancer in Heidelberg, Germany. The report that intake of raw
vegetables, total vegetables, and whole-grain products was inversely
associated with breast cancer risk. High intake of vitamin C, folate
equivalents, b-carotene, zinc, and copper also reduced the risk, however,
fruits, cooked vegetables, fibre, calcium, manganese, or iron did not have such effect.
The authors concluded that in this population of German women, components of raw
vegetables and some micronutrients appear to decrease breast cancer risk. Cristina Pearson and colleagues 2008 studied the effect of carotenoids,
retinol and tocopherol on gastric cancer among Japanese with known Helicobacter pylori infection.
The authors found evidences that alfa- and beta-carotene reduces the risk of
gastric cancer in men but not in women, where relatively higher plasma levels
compared to men had been found. Lutein/zeaxanthin, lycopene, retinol, alfa- or
gama-tocopherol had no effect on gastric cancer, according to the authors. They
conclude that very low plasma levels of alfa-carotene and beta -carotene are
signs of a higher risk of gastric cancer.
Shaun K. Rodriguez et col. suggest a novel mechanism for green tea catechin,
epigallocatechin-3-gallate anticancer effects where epigallocatechin gallate can abrogate vascular endothelial growth factor signalling by interfering with
the formation of a receptor complex, resulting in attenuated mitogenic and
angiogenic signalling.
Bitter chocolate has high levels of catechins ( 53,3 mg/100g chocolate)
.
Specific polyphenols are measured with aid of HPLC or capyllary
electrophoresis.
In order to act reducing it is necessary have at least one of the
following structures:
1.- 3' , 4' -Dihydrofunction at the B ring. This makes the turnover
of a proton building thus an aryloxy-radical.
2.- OH- A group in position 5 and 7 at the A ring.
3.- A doublebound in 2-3 position in conjugation with the
4-Oxo-function and the 3-OH group at the ring C turning possible the
delocalization of the electrons of the B ring.
Quercentine has all three structures turning out to be an
excelent antioxydant in water solution.
According to Richard S. Bruno and colleagues green tea extract inhibits
intestinal lipid absorption and may regulate hepatic lipid accumulation and
protects against hepatic lipid accumulation during the development of
nonacoholic fatty liver disease in an obese mouse model by limiting hepatic
lipid accumulation and injury without affecting hepatic antioxidant status
and adiponectin-mediated lipid metabolism.
The polyphenols such as epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin,
epicatechin gallate, and epicatechin account for the health benefits of green
tea. They are reduced tenfold in black tea by oxidation during the fermentation process.
The authors conclude that green tea extract may be used as a potential dietary
strategy for preventing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and it may be
helpful as a dietary therapy under conditions of preexisting hepatic
steatosis. They suggest also to evaluate the extent to which green tea extract
can prevent the transition toward more debilitating forms of nonalcoholic
fatty liver disease.
Woon-Puay Koh and colleagues 2007 write that according to data from the
1993-2005 Singapore Chinese Health Study smoking as well as total caffeine
intake were inversely related to Parkinson's disease risk.
Black tea showed an inverse association with Parkinson's disease risk that
was not confounded by total caffeine intake or tobacco smoking, which on their
own also reduced the risk of the disease. Ingredients of black tea other
than caffeine appear to be responsible for the beverage's inverse association
with Parkinson's disease. Diet and green tea drinking was unrelated to
Parkinson's disease risk.
Green tea contains between 30 and 40 per cent of water-extractable polyphenols,
black tea only 3 to 10 per cent. Oolong tea is
semi-fermented tea and is somewhere between green and blacktea. Ann Walker
from the Tea Advisory Panel explains the positive effect of black tea with the
fact that when brewing black tea the catechins undergo oxidation resulting in
the generation of more complex varieties, called thearubigins and theaflavins.
[419]
Exposure to pesticides and agricultural chemicals in rural areas
was reported to trigger Parkinson Disease. Willis and colleagues 2010 in a new
study, analysed the environmental risk factors in urban areas. They found that manganese and copper emissions may be some of the triggers of the
disease in susceptible individuals. Data from 1988 to 1998 of the Toxic
Release Inventory of the Environmental Protection Agency were used. No strong
correlation between industrial lead output and the incidence of Parkinson
Disease was found. This, however, may be due to other sources, such as lead
paint, lead in the water, or other sources.
The authors suggest that all these environmental contaminants may have a
neurotoxic effect in the same area of the brain affected in Parkinson Disease,
interfering with the ability to eliminate toxic radicals. The metals may also
induce or accelerate the formation of protein clumps during neurodegeneration.
The authors concluded that urban Parkinson Disease incidence is greater in
counties with high reported industrial release of copper or manganese.
Environmental exposure to metals may increase risk of Parkinson Disease in urban
areas. However, research should concentrate on overall metal pollution levels
rather than focusing on any particular industry.
Kumudavally and colleagues 2008 evaluated the use of green tea to extend the
shelf life of fresh mutton, at ambient storage conditions of Indian climate
condition around 25 ±2° and aproximately 85±5% RH).
According to the authors the ethanolic extract of green tea significantly
inhibit spoilage microflora, including certain pathogens of acidulant treated
mutton (pH 3.8). Free fatty acids, the biogenic amine index remained almost
unchanged and the mutton was acceptable for up to 4 days. The control sample
began to spoil between 20 and 24 hours. Very high free fatty acids and
biogenic amine index values were found.
The authors concluded that green tea extract could extend the shelf life of
fresh mutton for up to 4 days inhibiting sensorial spoilage.
Kushivama and colleagues 2009 report that routine intake of green tea may
promote healthy teeth and gums. Three indicators of periodontal
disease were examined in this study: periodontal
pocket depth, clinical attachment loss of gum tissue, and bleeding on probing
of the gum tissue. Periodontal disease is a chronic inflammatory disease that
affects the gums and bone supporting the teeth, cardiovascular disease and
diabetes may also be associated.
Symptoms of periodontal disease were reduced by the antioxidant catechin of
green tea. In this study the authors suggest that green tea interferes with the
body's inflammatory response to periodontal bacteria, promoting periodontal
health. [423]
A 15 years follow up study made by Brian Buijsse and colleges indicate that
cocoa-containing foods improve endothelial function and reduce blood pressure.
In a cohort of elderly men Brian Buijsse and colleges found that cocoa intake
is inversely associated with blood pressure and 15-year cardiovascular and
all-cause mortality, confirming previous studies which have linked flavanols
(Flavan-3-ols) to improved cardiovascular health.
The cocoa-containing foods from this study included chocolate confectionery,
cocoa sandwich filling, cocoa desserts, cocoa drinks, and dietary supplements.
The men who consumed the most cocoa (more than 2.3 grams per day) had lower
systolic diastolic blood pressures (3.7 mmHg and 2.1 mmHg, respectively) than
those who consumed the least cocoa (less than 0.36 grams per day).
Several previous studies have shown that flavonol consumption increased blood
vessel vasodilation, and improve endothelial function.
However, Cathy Ross, of the British HeartFoundation, said that here is some
evidence that when eaten in small quantities, dark chocolate might have some
beneficial effects on blood vessels and lowering blood pressure, but as yet no
study has investigated the long-terms clinical effects.
People would have to eat about 100 grams of dark chocolate a day with 500
calories and 30 % of fat to get an effective amount of flavanols. According
to Cathy Ross there are much betterways of improving heart health like
products with increased flavonol content. [424] The cocoa flavonoids, which are
present in dark chocolate, are strong antioxidants. De Gottardi and colleagues
2010 found dark chocolate to exert beneficial effects on patients with liver
cirrhosis reducing the damage to the blood vessels.
The researchers compared the effect of a diet containing dark chocolate with a
diet containing white chocolate. Both meals caused a highly significant
increase in portal blood flow which was lower in patients receiving the dark
chocolate, compared with the white chocolate diet. A smaller post-prandial hepatic vein pressure gradient HVPG reduces the risk of blood vessel ruptures.
The authors concluded that meals containing dark chocolate reduces
post-prandial increase in portal pressure in liver patients, caused by a
reduction of the oxidant stress of the hepatic endothelial cells. This results in vasorelaxation and consequent reduction of the blood pressure in
the liver. According to Dr Romina di Giuseppe and colleagues of the Moli-sani Project dark
chocolate contains high concentrations of flavonoids and has antiinflammatory
properties reducing serum C-reactive protein (CRP). The authors report that consuming of up to 1 serving (20 g) of dark chocolate every 3 d significantly
reduced serum CRP concentrations compared with nonconsumers or higher
consumers. The authors suggest that regular consumption of small doses of dark
chocolate reduces inflammation.
They stress further that lower CRP corresponds to a shift from medium risk of
cardiovascular disease to low risk. However, eating less than 20g three times a
week the beneficial effect tends to disappear, eating more, the effect of
additional lipids an calories surpasses the beneficial effect of the flavonoids
on blood pressure, inflammation and cardiovascular protection.
Spadafranca and colleagues 2009 found that dark chocolate contained 860 mg
polyphenols, of which 58 mg epicatechin compared with white chocolate which
contained only 5 mg polyphenols, with undetectable epicatechin. When 45 g dark
chocolate were added to the diet of healthy people the resulting increase of plasma epicatichin levels improved the resistance to damage of mononuclear
blood cells DNA, but had no effect on the plasma total antioxidant activity.
The authors report that after 22 hours neither plasma epicatichin nor improved
DNA resistance to oxidative stress were detected. No changes were detected
with white chocolate. The authors concluded that dark chocolate may
transiently improve DNA resistance to oxidative stress, because of the content
of flavonoids.
A meta-analysis performed by Desch and colleagues 2009 confirms the blood
pressure-lowering capacity of flavanol-rich cocoa products due to their high
content of plant-derived flavanols. This study adds further data to previous
studies and found -4.5 mm Hg for systolic blood pressure and -2.5 mm Hg for
diastolic blood pressure. The authors, however, report a significant
statistical heterogeneity across studies which rise questions about the appropriate dose and the long-term side effect. The authors stress that these
questions should be answered by more studies before recommending cocoa
products as treatment in hypertension.
The protective effect of cocoa phenolic extracts on AML12 and MLP29 liver
cells were studied by Arlorio and colleagues 2009. They found that
phenolic-rich extracts of both unroasted and roasted cocoa inhibits
drug-triggered liver cytotoxicity by inducing autophagy. This was shown by
enhanced Beclin 1 expression and accumulation of monodansylcadaverine in
autolysosomes. Based on their findings, the authors suggest that cocoa be
added to the list of natural chemopreventive agents, and their possible use in
the hepatopathy prevention should be further eroded.
Neilson and colleagues 2010 compared the nutritional effect of dark chocolate
with high sucrose chocolate and milk chocolate in diets of rats. Plasma
levels of catechin and epicatechin were monitored measuring their metabolites
O-glucuronides and O-Me-O-glucuronides. High sucrose chocolate provided the
highest concentrations of these metabolites, the lowest values were found for
milk chocolate and intermediate concentrations for dark chocolate.
Previous studies found that chocolate-milk-containing beverages performed
better than milk chocolate. The authors concluded that the physical state of
the product may significantly modulate the bioavailiability of cocoa
flavanols (catechin and epicatechin) and milk beverages do not reduce the
benefic effect of cocoa.
These findings should be analysed carefully in face of studies with
favourable results for dark chocolate. Confectioneries high in sugar
increase obesity risk in children, a consumer group heavily targeted by
marketing strategies.
Rabinerson and Melamed assessed the immense power of appeal to people of
chocolate, leading to craving and addiction especially among women. The
authors writes that texture and aroma, the presence of possible psycho-pharmacologic ingredients, and hormonal changes during the menstrual
cycle, may induce women's attraction to chocolate. However, no explanation for
the success of chocolate was ultimately found by the authors.
The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) is one of the most
common screening tests for helping an individual to determine his or her
depression quotient. [433]
Alkalization is used in the cocoa processing to make it easier to mix, digest and
to correct its colour.
Andres-Lacueva and colleagues 2008 found a loss of flavonoids between 60 and
86 percent during the alkalinization process.
The authors concluded that the alkalinization treatment of cocoa can affect the
antioxidant properties and the polyphenol biovailability of natural cocoa powder
products. They call for a compromise between colour and phenolic content,
especially for cocoa powder products derived from alkalised cocoa powder.
The Malaysian cocoa beans antioxidants study 2007
[434]
Amin Ismail and colleagues 2007 investigated the antioxidant capacity and
total phenolic content of cocoa beans from Malaysia, Ghana, Ivory Coast and
Sulawesi. They analysed the water extract to measure the antioxidant activity
based on beta-carotene bleaching assay, while the ethanolic extract was used
to measure the scavenging and ferric reducing activities.
The researchers reported that Ghanaian cocoa beans had the highest
antioxidant and scavenging activities, followed by Ivory Coast, Malaysian and
Sulawesian. Malaysian and Sulawesian beans were found in this study to have
the highest ferric reducing activity, compared to the other beans. The highest
phenolic content was found in Malaysian beans, followed by Sulawesian,
Ghanaian and Ivory Coast.
The authors concluded that antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of Malaysian
cocoa beans were comparable to Ghanaian, Ivory Coast, and Sulawesian beans.
Ghana cocoa hybrids nutrition and polyphenols study [435]
The yields of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Ghana is decreasing. New hybrids
to be introduced in the near future were developed to improve yields, resist to
diseases and improve pest resistance.
Gregory Tucker and colleagues 2008 studied the nutritients and polyphenols in
these hybrids.
The authors found that the hybrid beans had significantly higher antioxidant
capacities found in the hybrids Amazon/Trinitario hybrids, two different
Amazon/Amazon hybrids, and Amazon/Amelonado hybrids than in the traditional
beans for most of the hybrids under scrutiny.
The authors concluded that these hybrid varieties were either similar to, or
higher in polyphenols compared with traditional beans, the introduction of
these new varieties will not impact detrimentally on nutritional components
of the beans.
Polyphenols from cocoa bean, such as different catechins, as well as procyanins,
anthocyanins, and flavone and flavonol glycosides are linked to health issues
such as cardiovascular health, diabetes and skin health. These researches are
therefore supported by the chocolate industry such as Nestlé, Barry Callebaut
and Mars eager to improve the health image of chocolate strongly associated with
high saturated fats, high sugar and high calories profile. [436]
A review of studies related to the effect of consumption of chocolate by Buitrago-Lopez and colleagues 2011 found that eating chocolate reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease by 37% and stroke by 29% compared with individuals who ate the least amount of chocolate.
Included in this study were cardiometabolic disorders, including cardiovascular disease (coronary heart disease and stroke), diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. No association between chocolate consumption and the risk of heart failure, and no association on the incidence of diabetes in women were found.
The harmful effects of overconsumption are highlighted but the reviewed studies agreed on a potential beneficial association of chocolate consumption with a lower risk of cardiometabolic disorders. The authors suggest that the beneficial effects are mediated by the high content of polyphenols present in cocoa products and the increasing bioavailability of nitric oxide, which subsequently might lead to improvements in endothelial function, reductions in platelet function, and additional beneficial effects on blood pressure, insulin resistance, and blood lipids. The authors stress that their review and meta-analysis supports the results of foregoing studies, demonstrating a relationship between chocolate and cocoa consumption and cardiometabolic disorders.
A weakness of this review is that overall chocolate consumption was reported, with investigators not differentiating between dark, milk, or white chocolate. Chocolate in any form was included, such as chocolate bars, chocolate drinks, and chocolate snacks, such as confectionary, biscuits, desserts, and nutritional supplements.
Further studies are urgently needed to clear whether an increased consumption of chocolate and derived products is healthy at all. Many of these products have a high content of sugar, corn syrup, increase carbohydrate craving leading to an increase of saturated fats from the cocoa fat (palmitic and stearic acids). Instead of directing the public attention to onesided diets, healthy diets focused on increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, eating mostly whole grain food, reducing saturated fats and trans fats and reducing intake of salty and sugary foods, should be the answer to a growing overweight epidemic and increasing coronary diseases.
Onesided studies which do not consider the ingredients of chocolate products are focused by Foodwatch which writes that the milk chocolate snack “Milch-Schnitte” from Ferrero contains up to 60% of unhealthy fat and sugar. Instead of this chocolate snack for your 10am break, an apple may do more for your arteries. [438]
According to Ning and colleagues smoking increases the risk of several chronic diseases
associated with elevated oxidative stress status. The researchers assessed
almonds as a source of antioxidant nutrients and the reduction of oxidative
stress biomarkers from smokers. In a clinical trial the diet of smokers
were supplemented with 84 g almonds. Oxidative stress indicators were found
decreased after the almond supplementation.
The authors concluded that almond intake can enhance antioxidant defences and
diminish biomarkers of oxidative stress in smokers. However, after almond
supplementation, the concentration of of urinary 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine
(8-OHdG), an indicator of oxidative stress, remained significantly greater in
smokers than in nonsmokers by 98% suggesting that the best protection against
smoke related diseases is to stop smoking.
Legumin is a member of a family of storage proteins (11S globulins) found in the Leguminaceae and other higher plants.
It is a histidine- and glutamine-rich polypeptide of 50-55 kDa with a peptide bond joining the C-terminus of the alfa-subunit (always asparagine) and the N-terminus of the beta-subunit (almost always glycine)
Yamagata and colleagues found that a legumin does exist in maize, that it is uncleaved, that it appears to be localized to small protein bodies essentially identical to those found in legumes, and that it is more abundant in wild type (W64A), than in sweet corn or opaque-2 maize. The authors discuss the phylogenetic relations between maize legumin and 7S globulin (vicilins).
Boulter and colleagues found in Pisum and faba beans two major families of storage proteins, legumin and vicilin. Legumins are hexameric proteins comprising of 6M gama 60 000 subunits. Vicilins are a less well-defined group of proteins consisting largely ofM gama 50 000 subunits. Boulter found a third storage protein, convicilin, a vicilin-type protein with vicilin immunological determinants.
According to Boulter proteins homologous to legumin have been found in Arachis, Glycine,Vigna unguiculata, Lupinus, Cicer, Lens and Lathyrus. Equivalent vicilin-type proteins occur in Phaseolus vulgaris, Glycine, Arachis and Vigna unguiculata.
According to Shridhar and colleagues the almond major storage protein, amandin,Amandin is a legumin type protein. Amandin is composed of two major types of polypeptides linked via disulfide bonds. Amandin is a storage protein Amandin is not a glycoprotein. Amandin-1, amandin-2, and amandin-3 are antigenically related and have similar biochemical properties. Shiddhar found that methionine is the first essential limiting amino acid in amandin followed by lysine and threonine.
The classical three-step procedure of Western Blot (blocking, primary antibody-binding and secondary antibody-binding) takes about 4.5 hrs . GenScript developed the One-Step Western which performs Western blot or Dot blot to detect any protein including Legumin protein and related proteins within an hour. After the proteins are transferred from a gel to the membrane, the membrane is incubated in Pretreatment Solution for 5 minutes and in WB solution with primary antibody added for 40 min, the membrane is washed three times for 5 min each and the blots are develop using either Chemiluminescent substrate or TMB.
Nopalesare made from the young stem segments of prickly pear cactus, peeled to remove the spines. Opuntia ficus indica and other cactuses are cultivated in Mexico. Nopales are very rich in insoluble and especially soluble dietary fibre. They are also rich in vitamins and minerals.
Nopales reduces the glycemic effect of a mixed meal according to Bacardi-Gascon and colleagues 2007 who studied the effect of the cactus pear nopales on blood sugar levels when eaten with regular Mexican fodder like burritos and quesadillas. Bacardi-Gascon and colleagues concluded that Mexican patients could use nopales as a culturally based choice for the management of diabetes. [444]
Caterpillars of the Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg), known as the Prickly Pear Moth feed on the pads (cladodes) of cactus and may endanger yields. [445]
P.Rozan and colleagues studied the effect of a a cocoa polyphenolic extract and vitamin E , on free radicals produced by leucocytes assessing cognitive impairments in rats which had been exposed to heat of 40° /2hours. They found that the extract as well as vitamin E counteract the overproduction of free radicals under these conditions.
Norman Hollenberg and colleagues studied the Kuna people in Panama, descendants of the Inca Empire, which have a diet low in protein, very low in fat, however, is rich is rich in fruit and vegetables. They drink not less than 5 cups of cocoa a day. Their cocoa is processed very gently and is rich in flavanoids, also found in red wine, tea, and onions.
Hollenberg found that in the island-dwelling Kuna who drink much cocoa, the renal excretion of nitric oxide metabolites, nitrate and nitrite, is extremely high when compared to city-dwelling Kuna who drink little or no cocoa. The researcher believe elevated levels of nitric oxide in the blood helps relax the blood vessels and improves blood flow.
Hollenberg found that all of the commercially-available cocoas are flavanoid-poor because of the industrial processing which removes epicatechin because it is bitter.
According to the researchers a vasodilator action of flavanoid-rich cocoa include the kidneys, the extremity, and the cerebral circulation. In healthy humans, endothelial function fades with increasing age. Endothelial dysfunction is a hallmark of diabetes mellitus.
As flavanoid-poor cocoa with essentially similar levels of theobromine and other constituents has not replicated the effect of flavanoid-rich cocoa, Hollenber finds it very likely that the flavanols are involved.
According to Hollenberg epicatechin can reduce the risk of five of the major health problems: stroke, heart failure, cancer, diabetes and age-related high blood pressure which are found to be less than 10% in the Kuna people.
A nocturnal frog (Pseudis paradoxa) that dwells in the ponds and lagoons of
the Amazon secretes on its skin a protein that protects the frog from
infection. A copy of this peptide called pseudin-2 is suggested to boost
insulin production in people with Type 2 diabetes.
The joint team from the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland and United Arab
Emirates University say that pseudin-2 could join a new class of medicines,
called incretin mimetics, that help diabetics to control their condition when
dietary changes or other medicines have failed.
Intestinal peptides regulate postprandial insulin secretion resulting in a
higher insulin response to an oral glucose load compared with an intravenous
administration of an equivalent amount of glucose.This is the " incretin
effect" leaded by the incretin hormones, gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP,
renamed glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide) and glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1).
These hormones are synthesized and secreted by cells lining the intestinal tract, and stimulate insulin secretion. A class of substances with the incretin effect are called "incretin mimetics" and include Liraglutide and Exenatide, polypeptide hormones, similar to the human GLP-1, but it is not subjected to rapid degradation by dipeptidyl peptidase.
A study on mice with unhealthy enlarged hearts found that the condition reversed itself with supplementation of copper. The researchers hope this could also humans be applied in humans using 3 mg dosis/ day.The current recommended daily intake for humans, however, is only 0.9 mg/day. Although high, the dose was nevertheless below safe upper limits for copperthat were fed the equivalent of three times the amount of copper recommended for human health.
According to the list of copper-rich foods of the US Agricultural Research Service (ARS) some foods rich in copper are: [452]
| Food |
mg Cu/100g |
|---|
| Mollusk, oyster |
2,50 |
| Bakin chocolate, bitter |
2,00 |
| Mushroms |
0,40 |
| Crustaceans, crab, canned |
1,18 |
| Tomato concentrate |
0,40 |
| Barley, pearled,raw |
3,70 |
| Beans, white, canned |
0,50 |
| Beans, white, raw |
0,80 |
Hartman and colleagues 2007
found that Acute consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise
promotes better results on training-induced lean mass accretion.
They compared drinks immediately and again 1 h after exercise:
Fat-free milk with a drink of fat-free soy protein that was isoenergetic,
isonitrogenous, and macronutrient ratio matched to Milk and a third drink of
maltodextrin that was isoenergetic with Milk and Soy.
Greater increases in the Milk group than in both the Soy and control groups
were found in Type I and type II muscle fiber area and DXA-measured fat- and
bone-free mass.
The authors concluded that chronic postexercise consumption of milk promotes
greater hypertrophy during the early stages of resistance training in novice
weightlifters when compared with isoenergetic soy or carbohydrate consumption.
Staple foods, like fat-free milk provide better results than many costly protein hydrolysates. Hundreds of US workers acquired a deadly lung disease called
Bronchiolitis obliterans linked to the inhalation of the a volatile
butter-flavouring ingredients diacetyl used as popcorn flavouring. A
transplant is the only cure. [454]
The health effects of eating diacetyl in butter-flavoured popcorn, or
breathing the fumes from the microwave, as well from Margarine, pastries and
confectioneries is unknown. Diacetyl is considered as "generally recognized as
safe" but no studied were made.
US popcorn processors banned the chemical from their formulations to avoid
further heavy payments of lawsuits to their sick workers. Strict safety
guidelines for industry were issued by the Labour Department.
Two bills to ban the use of diacetyl were introduced in the California
Assembly. [455]
The US labour department OSHA developed a guidance concerning the safety
procedures for individuals working around butter flavouring. [456]
Daniel Morgan and colleagues 2008 evaluated the respiratory toxicity of diacetyl
in mice. The authors report that depending on the route and duration of exposure,
diacetyl causes significant epithelial injury, peribronchial lymphocytic
inflammation, or fibrohistiocytic lesions in the terminal bronchioles, a
condition that can lead to the lung disease bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome
(BOS), a thickening and scarring of the lungs. The authors concluded that
workplace exposure to diacetyl contributes to the development of BOS in
humans.
US popcorn Pop Weaver and ConAgra announced to eliminate diacetyl in butter
flavours of popcorn. The Committee of Experts on Flavouring Substances of the
Council of Europe (CEFS) declared diacetyl as safe for human consumption in 1999 but failed
to include inhalation of the chemical in the assessment. The European Food
Safety Agency will re-evaluate the chemical.
In 2005 the EU Commission declared that diketones (for example acetyacetone) are
like dialcohols and hydroxyketones in that they are in vitro and in vivo
genotoxic chemical substances and banned it as nutrition additives. As diacetyl
is a diketone (in fact the simplest) it may eventually be subject to this EU
regulation.
- Council Directive 88/388/EEC of 22 June 1988 on the approximation of the
laws of the Member States relating to flavourings for use in foodstuffs and to
source materials for their production.
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31988L0388:EN:HTML
- 88/389/EEC: Council Decision of 22 June 1988 on the establishment, by the
Commission, of an inventory of the source materials and substances used in the
preparation of flavourings.
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31988D0389:EN:HTML
The Food Magazine pictures and describes 24 products from outstanding brands
which appear to contain strawberries, but get their flavour from cheap
flavourings, with no or little fruit in it. The magazine calls the consumer to
read the small print. See the Faking the Flavour article and the pictures of
the commented foods at: http://www.foodcomm.org.uk/latest_flavourings_Feb08.htm
The Food Commission says that flavourings are used to improve the appeal of
low-nutrient or high fat, sugar, salt foods, replacing genuine, nutritious
ingredients, having a negative impact on health. It is well documented that
the whole fruit with its vitamins, antioxidants and bioflavonoids make food
healthy. The flavourings simulate healthy ingredients which are not present or
their content is kept at a minimum. The Food Commission stresses that describing a product containing little or no
real fruit at all as strawberry flavour and plastering the packet with
pictures of strawberries is misleading and deceptive. Unfortunately, this is
legal and the practice is widespread. The European directive 1999/217 [458] and their amendments regulating flavours and labelling
needs therefore urgently to be revised.
According to the group the repeated exposure to flavourings may negatively
affect consumers reaction to the taste of fresh, unprocessed foods. The Food
Commission also says that flavourings should be identified on labels to
protect consumer with associated health problems.
Codex Alimentarius Standards: General Requirements for natural Flavourings
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/358/CXG_029e.pdf
Title 21 - Food and Drugs. Food Additives Permitted For Direct Addition to Food
for Human Consumption. Subpart F Flavoring agents and related Substances Sec. 172.515 Synthetic flavoring substances and adjuvants.
http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfCFR/CFRSearch.cfm
Title 21 - Food and Drugs. Food Additives Permitted For Direct Addition to Food
for Human Consumption. Subpart F Flavoring agents and related Substances Sec.
172.510 Natural flavoring substances and natural substances used in conjunction with flavors.
http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=172.510
According to an opinion of the Panel of the EFSA dietary exposure to camphor
arises from the consumption of foods flavoured by using either herbs (e.g. basil,
coriander, marjoram, rosemary, sage), their essential oils or the chemically
defined flavouring substance d-camphor. Camphor is easily absorbed in the
gastrointestinal tract and oxidised to 5- and 3-hydroxycamphor, followed by
conjugation and excretion. Camphor is not mutagenic, and there is no evidence of
reproductive and developmental toxicity after oral administration to rats and
rabbits.
A TDI could not be derived. A chronic exposure of 15 mg/day equivalent to 250
µg/kg body weight (bw)/day was calculated. The Panel considered that there
would be no safety concern regarding chronic toxicity.
The acute exposure estimates for children and adults are about 60-120 times and
150-360 times, respectively, lower than the probable lowest lethal oral bolus
dose of 50 mg/kg bw. The acute exposure estimates for children and adults are
about 2-5 times and 6-14 times, respectively, lower than the dose of 2 mg/kg bw
below which no acute effects have been reported in human case studies.
The Panel suggests that maximum limits should be set to ensure that exposure to
camphor does not exceed 2 mg/kg bw on a single day in any age group
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